Hydrogen has long held promise in delivering environmentally conscious power for transportation, homes, and life in general, but it’s been a long road. There are reasons. Holding hydrogen back has been its high cost, a near-complete lack of pipelines and fueling infrastructure, and the environmental impact of sourcing this amazingly clean fuel. At the same time, driving continuing interest is the very real benefit of moving on from hydrocarbons and transitioning to this energy source not only for hydrogen vehicles, but also for use as civilization’s primary fuel source. Let’s dive deeper to examine hydrogen’s story.
Why hydrogen? That’s easy. Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element on the planet, and in fact, in the universe. Hydrogen, with oxygen, makes up water (H2O) and is also found in nearly all organic compounds. Hydrogen is so highly combustible it has served as a primary rocket fuel, including in the U.S. Space Shuttle program. Hydrogen is also being explored by NASA for hydrogen hybrid fuel cell/gas turbine engines for commercial aviation and other missions.
More importantly to us here on Earth, hydrogen burns in air without carbon emissions and its only byproducts are water vapor and oxides of nitrogen (NOx), the latter because air contains nitrogen. When used to create electricity through an electrochemical fuel cell, there is no combustion and thus no unwanted emissions at all, just heat and water vapor. This is the high-profile environmental calling card of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. It’s also a growth market, with Research and Markets projecting the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle market growing from $8.21 billion this year to $20.49 billion in 2030. Overall, all this would appear to make hydrogen an ideal fuel for our time.
Ah, but things are not so simple. Pure geologic ‘white’ hydrogen does exist in its natural gaseous state but has been considered rare, found deep in the earth and deemed economically and logistically unrealistic as a resource. So, while we may be surrounded by hydrogen, the fact that it’s typically bonded with other elements means it must be separated to yield the ideal fuel we seek.
Today most hydrogen is created by steam reforming natural gas, a thermo- chemical process that extracts hydrogen from methane. The resulting product is known as ‘grey’ hydrogen because of the carbon created and a less-than-ideal over- all environmental impact. When steam reforming is combined with carbon capture and storage it’s known as ‘blue’ hydrogen, with the process considered low carbon or carbon neutral since the carbon created is sequestered from the atmosphere.
A more environmentally compatible way of creating hydrogen is by electrolyzing water. This electrochemical process strips water’s two hydrogen atoms from its oxygen atom to produce hydrogen gas. Electrolysis requires significant electrical energy so where this energy is sourced is paramount. If the electrolytic process uses electricity from renewable sources like solar, wind, or hydroelectric power, this is known as ‘green’ hydrogen. That color designator changes to ‘pink’ hydrogen if the electricity comes from nuclear energy. Color palette aside, today’s challenge is to devise the most efficient, low cost, low carbon, and environmentally positive ways to source clean hydrogen to help drive us to a zero carbon future.
Not so long ago, hydrogen generated serious interest among most of the auto industry’s major players as it competed with the commercialization of other alter- native fuels, most notably alcohol fuels, natural gas, propane autogas, and electricity. We’ve all seen battery EVs surge ahead with many breakthroughs, product commitments, and not inconsequentially, enormous government funding. But that doesn’t mean hydrogen is down and out.
There have been many hydrogen vehicles developed and fielded in relatively small numbers over the past three decades. While some early models like Honda’s FCX were available in limited numbers to consumers, most others were exclusive to fleets, destined for field trials, or introduced as driveable prototypes or concepts. Among these zero-emission fuel cell vehicles were the Ford Focus FCV, GM HydroGen3 and Sequel FCEV, Hyundai Tucson FCEV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell, Nissan Xterra FCV, Toyota FCHV, and VW Touran HyMotion. Taking another approach, models like the Mazda RX8-RE and BMW Hydrogen 7 sedan burned hydrogen in their internal combustion engines, nearly emissions-free with the exception of minimal NOx.
Efforts to commercialize hydrogen vehicles continue, though in ways different than what was seen in the recent past. There are fewer automakers making hydrogen a priority these days, though the ones that are involved count for a lot. Toyota, Honda, and Hyundai – and to a lesser extent GM and BMW – are seriously in the game on the light-duty side. Among the most notable hydrogen models are today’s Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and in our recent past the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell sedan that was with us for a few short years until 2022.
Truck makers like Freightliner, Hyundai Motor, Volvo Trucks, and Nikola are also involved on the commercial end of the spectrum. Because of government regulations and the realities of the
market, it may be that hydrogen big rigs powered by fuel cells are destined to lead the way. As hydrogen power gains momentum in the commercial space, larger commercial trucks transporting weighty loads will likely be fueled with liquid hydrogen, rather than the gaseous hydrogen used by light-duty consumer and commercial vehicles. The reason is simple: hydrogen stored as a liquid in a cryogenic state (-253 degrees C) offers much greater energy density than gaseous hydrogen, which means more fuel can be carried on board for greater driving range.
A coordinated strategy involving hydrogen vehicles and fueling opportunities has always been required since one can’t exist without the other. Government has taken a lead role in providing grants and financial incentives for hydrogen fueling over the years and energy companies have stepped up to the plate, to a limited degree. We’ve seen automakers work hand-in-hand with energy giants like Shell and Chevron as limited rollouts of hydrogen vehicles have taken place exclusively in areas where hydrogen stations are available. There have also been coordinated efforts in developing hydrogen fueling along major highway corridors to support hydrogen commercial vehicles.
Hydrogen vehicles hold a distinct advantage over EVs since they can be refueled in about the same amount of time as a gas vehicle. However, they face a significantly greater challenge in finding a place to fill up. After Shell recently closed down seven public access H2 stations in California, this left just over 50 public hydrogen stations in the entire country, all of these in the Golden State with the exception of a single station in Hawaii. Shell continues to operate commercial hydrogen stations in California.
Innovations continue apace even amid these challenges. Though Honda’s Clarity FCV is behind us, this automaker is continuing on its hydrogen journey with a new plug-in hydrogen CR-V e-FCEV built in Ohio. The CR-V e-FCEV is being leased for $459 per month with a $15,000 hydrogen fuel credit. There’s other evidence of a growing emphasis on hydrogen power, like the hydrogen fuel cell joint venture between Honda and GM that aims to manufacture fuel cells at scale in Michigan to drastically lower their cost. Toyota is also assembling fuel cell modules at its Kentucky manufacturing plant for heavy-duty truck customers. Plus, major automotive suppliers are accelerating their activities with hydrogen vehicle systems and components.
Hydrogen’s potential is illustrated in interesting ways at Toyota’s port facility in Long Beach, California, where a FuelCell Energy Tri-gen system uses renewable biogas to create up to 1200 kg per day of hydrogen, 2.3 megawatts of renewable electricity, and 1400 gallons of water to support the automaker’s port operations. Hydrogen created here supplies a nearby heavy-duty fueling station for zero emission drayage operations and fuels Mirai FCEVs arriving at the port.
One of the most important pushes for hydrogen in recent times comes from $8 billion in funding from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law supporting the creation of regional clean hydrogen hubs. The focus at seven designated hubs includes hydrogen production and distribution, with hydrogen created by electrolysis and other means combined with carbon capture. The aim is to produce three million metric tons of clean hydrogen annually. Establishing hubs strategically located across the country will serve to create an interconnected hydrogen ecosystem that will expand nationally in an effort to support a growing hydrogen economy.
As always, technologies evolve and new innovations come to light. Such is the case with hydrogen, as a new frontier is being explored that could exploit potentially vast reserves of ‘white’ hydrogen recently discovered on multiple continents, including North America. Trapped in geologic fields like oil and natural gas, this source of naturally occurring hydrogen can be extracted in similar ways and has the potential to provide massive amounts of low carbon hydrogen in the future.
Using the most abundant element in the universe to power our vehicles and lives is a compelling proposition, especially considering its ability to do so through fuel cells that produce only water vapor as a byproduct. That’s why so many scientists, engineers, companies, and governments are hard at work addressing hydrogen’s commercial challenges. Whatever direction hydrogen power takes in the years ahead in response to changing administrations and shifting clean energy strategies, trust that it will remain of interest as a potential answer to low- or no-carbon mobility. It promises to be an interesting journey
Electric vehicles reached a new record market share in 2024, so it seems the enthusiasm for electrification won’t be powering down anytime soon. Adoption of electric vans and trucks continues to grow on the commercial side, including among large cities, small towns, and businesses of all sizes. That’s what we’re seeing every day at Ford Pro, the commercial vehicles division of Ford Motor Company.
Based on conversations with real-world Ford Pro customers, we’ve gleaned three trends for 2025 on electric vehicles in business and government fleets that are worth considering.
Early adopters are entering their next phase: Many companies that were early adopters of electric vehicles in pilot programs are now expanding their fleets. That’s likely to continue in 2025, having found that electrification made good business sense for them.
Elite Home Care, a South Carolina-based senior and disability care provider, started their electrification journey with a single Ford E-Transit electric van in 2022. Today, they have 27 E-Transit vans upfitted with lifts providing over 10,000 trips per month for their patients while saving $6,500 per van each year.
Chris Russo, co-founder of Elite Home Care, shared with us what these savings have meant for his business: “E-Transits have allowed us to expand our business because we save so much money. Now we can expand our reach to more people needing care. Moving to E-Transit vans has lowered our fixed costs. It’s allowed us to do more of the things we’d like to do to give back.”
Business and government customers are increasingly learning from their connected vehicles and relying on those learnings to make informed business decisions. These insights include realizing fuel and cost savings, tracking efficiency, staying ahead of the curve on maintenance, and even knowing when to replace vehicles.
DHL Express, a global delivery and logistics company, uses Ford Pro E-Telematics to see how much gas and carbon dioxide emissions they’re saving by switching to electric vehicles.
Chris Wessel, director of U.S. Fleet for DHL Express, told us how important that data is for a sustainable company with a stated goal of 60 percent of its last-mile delivery fleet being zero-emission by 2030: “In conjunction with other tools, we’re using Ford Pro E-Telematics to look at the fuel savings of our fleet, and then we’ll tie that back to our carbon reporting, making sure that we have a holistic view of our fleet and greenhouse gases avoided.”
Data is also helping customers decide when – or if – to electrify their fleet. Ford Pro E-Switch Assist, our free online tool that uses vehicle telematics data to determine fleet suitability for electric trucks and vans, has already assessed more than 38,000 vehicles.
If you’re reading this, chances are good there’s an electric vehicle charger installed outside your office, warehouse, or other place of business. But commercial electric vehicle charging is increasingly moving beyond the vehicle depot or company parking lot and into employees’ homes and other locations – and not just in warmer locales like California or Texas, but across a wide range of climates, terrains, and geographies.
With nearly a third of fleet managers reporting company vehicles being taken home at night, that trend will likely grow throughout 2025.
Fize Électrique, an electrical contractor in Canada, has installed six Level 2 chargers at its office. But their employees who take their company electric vehicles home at the end of the workday also have chargers installed at their homes.
Alain Fiset, director of smart energy for Fize Électrique, explained why they’ve split their charging between depots and employee homes: “Having a charging station for each EV is necessary for a smooth experience. The key to success with an electric vehicle is to charge it every night on a Level 2 charger.”
Behind these trends is an important fact: having the right team behind you makes adopting electric trucks and vans easier. That’s why Ford Pro offers an end-to-end solution of vehicles, charging, software, service, and financing to help streamline the process and maximize uptime for small, medium, and large business and government fleets. Just ask BellaVista Landscaping in San Jose, California, which has used the full spectrum of Ford Pro solutions in adding 25 hybrid and electric vehicles to its fleet since 2023.
As we enter 2025, look for companies to charge ahead with electric trucks and vans, the chargers and software that power them, and the service solutions that keep them on the road.
Trevor Blum is Senior Manager, Commercial Electric Vehicles at Ford Pro
When GM officially ended its EV1 electric car program in 2003 and recalled all its leased-only models, there was a feeling that it had given up on EVs. That wasn’t the case. There were rumors early on that another electric vehicle program was in the works and more evidence of this emerged just a few short years later. This article, which shares early details on the concept that would lead to the production Chevrolet Volt, is presented from our archives just as it appeared in Green Car Journal’s Winter 2006 issue. While there’s more to the Volt’s story since this electric vehicle was also discontinued in 2019 – much to the chagrin of a great many Volt owners who universally loved this vehicle and its innovative electric drivetrain – that story will have to wait for another time.
Excerpted from the Winter 2006 Issue: General Motors is back in the electric car business. First, the company announces a plug-in hybrid version of the Saturn Vue at the L.A. Auto Show. Now, GM has turned up the juice by unveiling the Chevrolet Volt, an “EV range-extender” concept car that makes petroleum an even smaller part of the equation. In fact, with its 40 mile pure electric range – which GM says covers more than half of all Americans’ daily commute to work and back – the Volt may eliminate the need for gasoline altogether for some drivers.
Central to the Volt concept is the new E-flex System, which GM says represents a rethinking of automotive propulsion that places primary focus on electric drive. Plugging in to a 110-volt outlet for about six hours will fully charge the car’s lithium-ion batteries. When the batteries run out after 40 miles of electric-only driving, a 1.0-liter,three-cylinder turbocharged engine runs at constant speed, turning a generator that replenishes the batteries. That engine could be replaced in future iterations of the concept with powerplants that run on pure ethanol (E100) or biodiesel, or even with a fuel cell running on hydrogen...thus the “flex” in the E-flex System.
In the Volt, the gas-powered engine gets about 50 mpg while it’s working to sustain the batteries. Some quick math reveals that overall fuel economy would be a staggering 150 mpg for a 60-mile drive. Run the engine on E85 ethanol, as the Volt is capable of doing, and even more gasoline use is displaced. Importantly, the Volt is able to do all this without compromising utility, which is a significant problem that plagued the truly wonderful but now infamously defunct GM EV1. The Volt will easily seat four passengers and their luggage, accelerate to 60 mph from a standstill in under 8.5 seconds, and cruise for 640 miles without refueling.
The Volt is about the size of the compact Cobalt and based on a similar vehicle architecture, yet with a much more athletic stance. The styling is sharp, edgy, and distinctively Chevrolet. One interesting feature is a transparent roof and beltline courtesy of glazed polycarbonate material from GE Plastics. The plug-in recharging ports are tastefully integrated into the front quarter fenders on either side of the vehicle.
Unfortunately, the Volt is being held back by the same culprit that actually killed the electric car the first time around: battery technology. GM admits that it is still waiting on a technological breakthrough to produce a large, production-ready lithium-ion battery pack.
GM thinks that could happen by 2010 or 2012, though we’ve been through times of optimistic predictions like this before when battery breakthroughs just didn’t come. Still, we’re crossing our fingers on the battery issue and it’s nice to see the General all charged up again.
Pickup truck manufacturers seem to be in a constant state of one-upmanship, with each new vehicle claiming to have ‘best in class’ capability, whether it’s power output, towing capacity, or some other work-related feature. So it isn’t all that surprising to hear Stellantis call its upcoming RAM 1500 Ramcharger ‘class-shattering.’ But if this new EV pickup hits the range figures RAM claims, that will be no brag.
The 1500 Ramcharger is one of two electrified pickups RAM is set to offer, with the Ramcharger coming first in 2025 and the RAM 1500 REV following next year. While the REV is a conventional battery-electric vehicle, the Ramcharger goes in a different direction, with a relatively modest 92 kWh battery pack augmented by a 130-kW generator and an onboard 3.6-liter Pentastar V-6 gasoline engine.
There is no path for the engine to directly drive the wheels. Instead, the generator converts the engine’s mechanical power to electrical power. That electricity can then either charge the battery or be routed to the truck’s front and rear electric drive modules (EDMs), which can tap both the generator and the battery pack for maximum power. Stellantis rates that output at 663 horsepower and more than 615 lb-ft torque, power that will enable the Ramcharger to hit 60 mph in 4.4 seconds.
Now, here comes the class-shattering part: The target range for the Ramcharger’s battery/generator combo is up to 690 miles, far outlasting the Chevrolet’s Silverado EV’s 492 miles of range and the Ford F-150 Lightning’s 320 miles.
With those performance targets, the Ramcharger will also lead the EV pickup class in towing and payload capacities, critical metrics for any pickup buyer regardless of powertrain. Tow capacity will max out at 14,000 pounds, while payload capacity will reach up to 2,625 pounds. Those ratings handily beat the Silverado EV (10,000/1,300 pounds) and the Lightning (10,000/2,235 pounds). They’re also higher than the 2025 RAM 1500 powered by the new, gasoline-fed 3.0-liter Hurricane I-6 (11,580/2,300).
The Ramcharger is built on Stellantis’ new STLA Frame, a body-on-frame architecture that positions the liquid-cooled battery pack beneath the floor at the center of the truck. Power delivery is split between a 250-kW front EDM (with an automatic wheel disconnect for free-wheeling under certain conditions) and a 238-kW rear EDM that can be fitted with an optional electronic locking differential. Pre-configured software offers the driver a choice of five driving modes to suit conditions – auto, sport, tow, snow, and off-road. Ramcharger rides on a fully independent suspension that includes a standard four-corner air suspension system with five height modes ranging from entry-exit to a choice of two off-road settings for extra clearance.
Though Stellantis has said the Ramcharger has “zero need for a public charger,” that functionality was not ignored. The pickup’s charge port accommodates Level 1 and 2 AC charging and DC fast charging. Up to five miles of range per minute can be added with 400-volt DC fast charging at up to 175 kW. The electrical system was also engineered with vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-home bi-directional charging capability. On-board electrical power can be tapped via an electrical panel in the bed that can provide up to 7.2 kW of mobile power and through 115-volt outlets in RamBox storage bins in the bedsides.
The Ramcharger’s exterior was designed with styling cues that echo conventionally powered RAM pickups, but with enough EV-only touches to set it apart from the rest of the fleet. Likewise, the interior is laden with high-tech hardware, including a 12.3-inch digital instrument cluster and a configurable, full-color head-up display in front of the driver. The passenger position gets its own 10.25-inch screen with controls for navigation and an HDMI plug to connect devices. The center of the dashboard is home to either a 12- or 14.5-inch touchscreen loaded with the automaker’s new Uconnect 5 infotainment system.
Ordering the range-topping Tungsten trim level adds a Klipsch Reference Premiere audio system, its 1,228-watt output and 23 speakers making the system, as Stellantis points out, best in class. Among the safety features built into the Ramcharger is an autonomous drive assist system that includes Level 2-plus Hands Free Highway Assist. Autonomous parallel and perpendicular parking is also available.
The decision to revive the legacy Ramcharger SUV nameplate long-ago discontinued by Dodge and bring it back as an electric RAM pickup is a strategic move by Stellantis. With its electric motors driven by both battery and engine-generator electric power, the 2025 Ramcharger may well be a pickup enthusiast’s dream, providing a more environmentally positive EV driving experience while delivering the kind of full functionality and range expected by truck buyers everywhere.
It’s the 1990s and you’re looking to drive something different. Imagine piloting a car that was as technologically advanced as a Lamborghini Diablo was fast, and more exclusive in numbers than that decade’s Ferrari F40. Now picture it with a GM emblem on its hood. In your mind’s eye, you’re behind the wheel of the legendary EV1, the first mass produced electric car of our modern age.
This is the car that started it all. While many automakers pursued electric vehicle development programs in the 1990s, it was GM’s Impact concept car, and then the production EV1 that followed, that literally set the modern EV field in motion.
GM turned to efficiencies-focused AeroVironment in California to develop an advanced electric vehicle unlike any other. When it debuted this car, the Impact prototype, at the 1990 LA Auto Show, the mission was to generate excitement. And that it did, courtesy of the Impact’s show-stopping teardrop-shaped plastic body, aluminum spaceframe, and a revolutionary electric propulsion system created by AeroVironment engineer and EV pioneer Alan Cocconi.
The electric EV1, based on the Impact concept but highly refined beneath the skin, emerged at Saturn dealers six years later. The EV1 was special, it was silent, and it was fast. Without the engine braking effect of a gas engine and with its regenerative braking setting adjusted accordingly, after lifting off the throttle it seemed to coast forever in a relatively friction-free state. Overall, it was seductive to drive, and if your mind wandered you could imagine piloting the era’s F-14 Tomcat on the street… and that doesn’t happen every day. We know, because we spent a year driving an EV1 on the roads and highways of California, one of the select areas where the EV1 was available.
The EV1 came to market with a slew of all-new technologies that are common today, from low rolling resistance tires to regenerative braking and keyless ignition. Accelerating from 0 to 60 mph took about eight seconds. The Gen 1 model had an estimated 50 to 95 mile driving range on its advanced lead-acid batteries.
Later, GM introduced Gen 2 EV1s with more advanced and power dense nickel-metal-hydride batteries that enabled an EV1 to travele an estimated 75 to 140 miles. Energizing both Gen 1 and Gen 2 batteries was handled with a unique charging paddle that transferred electrical energy via magnetic induction, without a hard connection between the paddle and car.
During its short lifetime, only 1,117 EV1s were built and these were leased only, with no purchase available. Leasing was a nod to GM’s need to maintain ultimate ownership over highly advanced and extremely expensive-to-produce vehicles, using all-new technology, that were being fielded in a limited way to feel out the market. Initially offered at a lease cost of $640 per month with financial incentives that brought this down to $480, the EV1’s lease terms evolved over time to be as low as $349.
Ultimately, this chapter of GM’s continuing electric vehicle story ended abruptly. The program was discontinued in 2002 and all EV1s were required to be returned at their end-of-lease, either making their way to the crusher or donated as inoperable examples to museums and other institutions, never to be seen on the highway again.
Manufactured in Tennessee on Volkswagen’s MEB modular world electric car platform, the 2021 VW ID.4 presents a new and compelling all-electric SUV that enters a segment presently dominated by Tesla, Chevrolet, and a select few others. What ID.4 brings to the battery electric SUV segment that Tesla doesn’t is price, coming in at a base cost of $39,995, some $10,000 less than Tesla’s Model Y.
For this, electric vehicle buyers get SUV hatchback utility, three-foot legroom in all seating positions, and ample luggage capacity for 5 adults. VW estimates ID.4 driving range at 250 mile on a full charge, and additionally points out that an additional 60 miles of range is attainable in just 10 minutes from a public DC quick-charge station.
Sporting a stature similar to that of Honda’s CR-V, the Volkswagen ID.4 rides on a steel-framed architecture featuring strut-like front suspension and multi-link suspension with coil-over shocks at the rear. This, combined with a long wheelbase and short overhangs, promises a smooth ride dynamic. Braking is handled by front disk and rear drum brakes.
A single permanent magnet, synchronous electric motor directs power to the rear wheels. The ID.4 produces 201 horsepower and 228 lb-ft torque that’s expected to deliver a 60 mph sprint in about 8 seconds. Electricity to power the motor is provided by an air-cooled, frame-integrated 82 KWh lithium-ion modular cell battery. An onboard 11KW charger enables three charge modes via standard 110-volt household power, 220-volt Level 2 charging, or DC fast charging. Typical charging with a home wall charger or public Level 2 charger will bring a full charge in 6 to 7 hours.
A minimalistic yet futuresque cabin with segment leading cabin volume rounds out ID.4’s architecture. Features include a driver-centric, touch sensitive steering wheel and a view-forward 5.3-inch ID information center that replaces conventional gauges. Vehicle operation is through steering wheel-mounted switches, with infotainment, climate control, device connectivity, navigation, and travel information accessed through a 10.3 inch touchscreen monitor. A 12 inch monitor is available with the model’s Statement Package.
Topping the list of features is expanded voice command and a communicative dash-integrated ID light bar. ‘Intuitive Start’ driver key fob recognition enables pre-start cabin conditioning capability. Base model upholstery is ballistic cloth with leatherette seat surfaces optional.
Volkswagen’s IQ Drive driver assist and active safety suite features travel assist, lane assist, adaptive cruise control, front and rear sensors, emergency assist, blinds spot monitoring, rear traffic watch and more. All this comes standard along with Pro Navigation, a heated steering wheel and front seats, wireless phone charging, and app connectivity for compatible devices.
The ID.4 EV is available in six colors and two trim levels, Gradient and Statement, for personalization. The optional Gradient package features a black roof, silver roof trim, silver accents, and silver roof rails along with 20-inch wheels to complete the upscale look. Looking forward, while rear-wheel drive is the choice today, Volkswagen is already talking up an all-wheel drive variant for early 2021 along with a lower-priced base model.
As the world’s largest automotive group, Volkswagen has the capacity to change the ever-expanding electric-car landscape. Looking at the style and utility of VW’s all-new ID.4, you can sense the renewed “people’s car” direction of the brand that accompanies the automaker’s commitment to electrification. VW says it’s aiming at selling 20 million electric cars based on the MEB electric car platform by model year 2029. Certainly, the potential for selling in truly significant numbers is reinforced by ID.4 pre-orders selling-out in just weeks, it’s safe to say.