Hydrogen has long held promise in delivering environmentally conscious power for transportation, homes, and life in general, but it’s been a long road. There are reasons. Holding hydrogen back has been its high cost, a near-complete lack of pipelines and fueling infrastructure, and the environmental impact of sourcing this amazingly clean fuel. At the same time, driving continuing interest is the very real benefit of moving on from hydrocarbons and transitioning to this energy source not only for hydrogen vehicles, but also for use as civilization’s primary fuel source. Let’s dive deeper to examine hydrogen’s story.
Why hydrogen? That’s easy. Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element on the planet, and in fact, in the universe. Hydrogen, with oxygen, makes up water (H2O) and is also found in nearly all organic compounds. Hydrogen is so highly combustible it has served as a primary rocket fuel, including in the U.S. Space Shuttle program. Hydrogen is also being explored by NASA for hydrogen hybrid fuel cell/gas turbine engines for commercial aviation and other missions.
More importantly to us here on Earth, hydrogen burns in air without carbon emissions and its only byproducts are water vapor and oxides of nitrogen (NOx), the latter because air contains nitrogen. When used to create electricity through an electrochemical fuel cell, there is no combustion and thus no unwanted emissions at all, just heat and water vapor. This is the high-profile environmental calling card of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. It’s also a growth market, with Research and Markets projecting the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle market growing from $8.21 billion this year to $20.49 billion in 2030. Overall, all this would appear to make hydrogen an ideal fuel for our time.
Ah, but things are not so simple. Pure geologic ‘white’ hydrogen does exist in its natural gaseous state but has been considered rare, found deep in the earth and deemed economically and logistically unrealistic as a resource. So, while we may be surrounded by hydrogen, the fact that it’s typically bonded with other elements means it must be separated to yield the ideal fuel we seek.
Today most hydrogen is created by steam reforming natural gas, a thermo- chemical process that extracts hydrogen from methane. The resulting product is known as ‘grey’ hydrogen because of the carbon created and a less-than-ideal over- all environmental impact. When steam reforming is combined with carbon capture and storage it’s known as ‘blue’ hydrogen, with the process considered low carbon or carbon neutral since the carbon created is sequestered from the atmosphere.
A more environmentally compatible way of creating hydrogen is by electrolyzing water. This electrochemical process strips water’s two hydrogen atoms from its oxygen atom to produce hydrogen gas. Electrolysis requires significant electrical energy so where this energy is sourced is paramount. If the electrolytic process uses electricity from renewable sources like solar, wind, or hydroelectric power, this is known as ‘green’ hydrogen. That color designator changes to ‘pink’ hydrogen if the electricity comes from nuclear energy. Color palette aside, today’s challenge is to devise the most efficient, low cost, low carbon, and environmentally positive ways to source clean hydrogen to help drive us to a zero carbon future.
Not so long ago, hydrogen generated serious interest among most of the auto industry’s major players as it competed with the commercialization of other alter- native fuels, most notably alcohol fuels, natural gas, propane autogas, and electricity. We’ve all seen battery EVs surge ahead with many breakthroughs, product commitments, and not inconsequentially, enormous government funding. But that doesn’t mean hydrogen is down and out.
There have been many hydrogen vehicles developed and fielded in relatively small numbers over the past three decades. While some early models like Honda’s FCX were available in limited numbers to consumers, most others were exclusive to fleets, destined for field trials, or introduced as driveable prototypes or concepts. Among these zero-emission fuel cell vehicles were the Ford Focus FCV, GM HydroGen3 and Sequel FCEV, Hyundai Tucson FCEV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell, Nissan Xterra FCV, Toyota FCHV, and VW Touran HyMotion. Taking another approach, models like the Mazda RX8-RE and BMW Hydrogen 7 sedan burned hydrogen in their internal combustion engines, nearly emissions-free with the exception of minimal NOx.
Efforts to commercialize hydrogen vehicles continue, though in ways different than what was seen in the recent past. There are fewer automakers making hydrogen a priority these days, though the ones that are involved count for a lot. Toyota, Honda, and Hyundai – and to a lesser extent GM and BMW – are seriously in the game on the light-duty side. Among the most notable hydrogen models are today’s Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and in our recent past the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell sedan that was with us for a few short years until 2022.
Truck makers like Freightliner, Hyundai Motor, Volvo Trucks, and Nikola are also involved on the commercial end of the spectrum. Because of government regulations and the realities of the
market, it may be that hydrogen big rigs powered by fuel cells are destined to lead the way. As hydrogen power gains momentum in the commercial space, larger commercial trucks transporting weighty loads will likely be fueled with liquid hydrogen, rather than the gaseous hydrogen used by light-duty consumer and commercial vehicles. The reason is simple: hydrogen stored as a liquid in a cryogenic state (-253 degrees C) offers much greater energy density than gaseous hydrogen, which means more fuel can be carried on board for greater driving range.
A coordinated strategy involving hydrogen vehicles and fueling opportunities has always been required since one can’t exist without the other. Government has taken a lead role in providing grants and financial incentives for hydrogen fueling over the years and energy companies have stepped up to the plate, to a limited degree. We’ve seen automakers work hand-in-hand with energy giants like Shell and Chevron as limited rollouts of hydrogen vehicles have taken place exclusively in areas where hydrogen stations are available. There have also been coordinated efforts in developing hydrogen fueling along major highway corridors to support hydrogen commercial vehicles.
Hydrogen vehicles hold a distinct advantage over EVs since they can be refueled in about the same amount of time as a gas vehicle. However, they face a significantly greater challenge in finding a place to fill up. After Shell recently closed down seven public access H2 stations in California, this left just over 50 public hydrogen stations in the entire country, all of these in the Golden State with the exception of a single station in Hawaii. Shell continues to operate commercial hydrogen stations in California.
Innovations continue apace even amid these challenges. Though Honda’s Clarity FCV is behind us, this automaker is continuing on its hydrogen journey with a new plug-in hydrogen CR-V e-FCEV built in Ohio. The CR-V e-FCEV is being leased for $459 per month with a $15,000 hydrogen fuel credit. There’s other evidence of a growing emphasis on hydrogen power, like the hydrogen fuel cell joint venture between Honda and GM that aims to manufacture fuel cells at scale in Michigan to drastically lower their cost. Toyota is also assembling fuel cell modules at its Kentucky manufacturing plant for heavy-duty truck customers. Plus, major automotive suppliers are accelerating their activities with hydrogen vehicle systems and components.
Hydrogen’s potential is illustrated in interesting ways at Toyota’s port facility in Long Beach, California, where a FuelCell Energy Tri-gen system uses renewable biogas to create up to 1200 kg per day of hydrogen, 2.3 megawatts of renewable electricity, and 1400 gallons of water to support the automaker’s port operations. Hydrogen created here supplies a nearby heavy-duty fueling station for zero emission drayage operations and fuels Mirai FCEVs arriving at the port.
One of the most important pushes for hydrogen in recent times comes from $8 billion in funding from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law supporting the creation of regional clean hydrogen hubs. The focus at seven designated hubs includes hydrogen production and distribution, with hydrogen created by electrolysis and other means combined with carbon capture. The aim is to produce three million metric tons of clean hydrogen annually. Establishing hubs strategically located across the country will serve to create an interconnected hydrogen ecosystem that will expand nationally in an effort to support a growing hydrogen economy.
As always, technologies evolve and new innovations come to light. Such is the case with hydrogen, as a new frontier is being explored that could exploit potentially vast reserves of ‘white’ hydrogen recently discovered on multiple continents, including North America. Trapped in geologic fields like oil and natural gas, this source of naturally occurring hydrogen can be extracted in similar ways and has the potential to provide massive amounts of low carbon hydrogen in the future.
Using the most abundant element in the universe to power our vehicles and lives is a compelling proposition, especially considering its ability to do so through fuel cells that produce only water vapor as a byproduct. That’s why so many scientists, engineers, companies, and governments are hard at work addressing hydrogen’s commercial challenges. Whatever direction hydrogen power takes in the years ahead in response to changing administrations and shifting clean energy strategies, trust that it will remain of interest as a potential answer to low- or no-carbon mobility. It promises to be an interesting journey
Toyota, a firm believer in the power of hydrogen to help remake the world of transportation, has turned its longtime R&D center in Southern California into its North American hydrogen development headquarters. Christened H2HQ, the small complex in Gardena is being repurposed to bring all of Toyota Motor North America’s hydrogen propulsion and stationary powerplant development activities under one roof. Toyota also has hydrogen research and development centers in Japan and Europe.
The new North American hydrogen facility initially will concentrate on hydrogen technology for heavy trucks and stationary power plants but will also continue working on the automaker’s fuel cell system for passenger vehicles. Toyota’s Mirai sporty sedan is one of only three fuel-cell electric passenger vehicles marketed in the U.S., alongside the Hyundai Nexo SUV and the new Honda CR-V e:FCEV plug-in hybrid. All are available only in California, which has all but two of the nation’s publicly available hydrogen fuel stations.
While such vehicles still serve only a tiny niche market, their fuel cell technology is exportable. Toyota uses the same fuel cell stacks developed for the Mirai in its heavy-duty truck and stationary power generation systems as well. On the heavy truck side, the automaker already has developed a hydrogen fuel cell powerplant ‘kit’ it will market to commercial truck manufacturers to offer their customers as an alternative to diesel engines.
The company believes, as do Hyundai and Honda, that hydrogen fuel cells have a robust future as the basis for clean power for transport and that right now, heavy-duty trucking – under tremendous pressure to clean up the air pollution caused by diesel engines – is where a lot of effort needs to be applied.
Work at H2HQ will enable Toyota to localize its global hydrogen work on both light and heavy-duty fuel cells and fuel cell vehicles, on hydrogen fueling, and on stationary fuel cell power plants, thus “creating real-world products to help reduce carbon emissions,” said Ted Ogawa, TMNA president and chief executive. Meaningful carbon reduction requires hydrogen made using renewable energy, and Toyota is working with various regulators and the power industry to promote increased use of renewables.
The H2HQ campus already includes a scalable test bench for working on stationary power plant applications, a hydrogen fueling station for light- and heavy-duty vehicles, and Toyota’s largest dynamometer, a 1.2 megawatt giant capable of testing electric drive systems for the largest heavy duty vehicles.
On the non-automotive side, Toyota recently developed a one megawatt fuel-cell generator for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Colorado and, in collaboration with Kohler Energy, a prototype backup power generator – hydrogen fueled – for a medical facility in Washington.
Toyota also aims to be able to make its new hydrogen research and development facility self-contained. To that end, it is installing a flex-fuel micro grid that combines a 230-kilowatt solar system, a one-megawatt stationary proton exchange membrane fuel cell generator, a 325-kW solid oxide fuel cell, and a 500-kWh battery storage system. It is expected to be able to take the facility off-grid, when needed, by 2026. The company said it also plans to operate a sustainable energy information center at the Gardena facility.
In tandem with the announcement earlier this month of the new H2HQ, Toyota Motor North America (TMNA) also unveiled the world’s first ‘tri-gen’ hydrogen fuel cell power plant at its Port of Long Beach vehicle prep facility. The plant, operated by Toyota partner FC Energy, produces hydrogen, electricity, and water from piped-in natural gas. And to offset its carbon footprint, FC pays for an equivalent amount of biogas from a waste facility near the California high desert town of Victorville.
About a third of the Tri-gen plant’s hydrogen – 1.6 tons a day – is sent to a nearby hydrogen fueling station used by Toyota for its fuel-cell passenger car, the Mirai, as well as by heavy duty fuel-cell electric trucks serving the port. The rest is passed through a pair of fuel cell stacks to produce 2.8 megawatts of electricity and about 1,400 gallons of water, a byproduct of combining hydrogen and oxygen in the fuel cell stacks. The water is used at a car wash at Toyota’s vehicle prep facility. Most of the electricity – 2.3 megawatts – is used at Toyota’s port facility. The remaining 500 kilowatts is used to power the Tri-gen station.
In June, the CEO of German manufacturer MAN Truck & Bus SE (MAN), Alexander Vlaskamp, told Austrian Newspaper Der Standard that:“E-mobility is coming now. The technology is mature and most efficient. In our estimation 80 or even 90 percent of logistics trucks will be electrically powered…If hydrogen is to be used, it must be green. And we see today that hydrogen is far too expensive (and) therefore, hydrogen will only be used in a small segment in Europe, such as for special transport.”
I became aware of this pronouncement through a friend in the U.S. trucking industry, who attached the article to an e-mail, saying, “So, hydrogen is dead!” Even as someone who has never been afraid to hold strong opinions on technology, I remember reading my friend's e-mail and thinking, “Well, that’s a bit extreme isn’t it?” Then I took some time to read Mr. Vlaskamp’s full interview and, in fairness, what he said is nuanced. He is not saying all hydrogen is too expensive or that the technology doesn’t work. He is simply pointing out that the cost of ‘green’ hydrogen as a fuel is too high for his customers to do their business.
Fair enough, Vlaskamp knows his customers, and trucking has and will always be a bottom-line driven industry. However, he goes on to state that there is already enough electricity in Austria to deal with the trucking fleet transition, and that to support the 30 percent of trucks in Europe going electric by 2030, 20,000 fast-charging stations will be needed, at a cost of several billion euros! This is where he loses me and quite a few others, as we will see below.
Here in the U.S., as the battle over the California Air Resources Board (CARB) Advanced Clean Fleets (ACF) regulation spills over into Congress, companies and truckers are faced with impossible choices. Do they wait to see if the bills introduced by Rep. John Joyce (R-PA) in the House of Representatives and/or Sen. Markwayne Mullin (R-OK) in the Senate, forestall CARB’s rule, or do they start to plan for the zero-emission future now? They haven’t got much time to figure it out; CARB’s rule goes into effect for the first trucks in 2024. One thing is certain: Europe’s second-largest truck manufacturer muddying the waters regarding technology choices won’t help anyone! To try and make sense of whether hydrogen is an option for U.S. trucking, I decided to talk to three experts in the field.
Dr. Tim Lipman is an energy and environmental technology, economics, policy researcher and lecturer with the University of California, Berkeley. His research focuses on electric-drive vehicles, fuel-cell technology, combined heat and power systems, biofuels, renewable energy, and hydrogen-energy systems infrastructure. When I spoke to Tim about the MAN CEO’s thoughts on hydrogen and electric trucks, he had this to say: “Batteries can’t do it all, that is for certain, and I think everyone is underestimating the level of effort needed to get the grid ready for transportation electrification.” He pointed to the fact that fast-charging infrastructure for trucks might require megawatts of power, and whether that power is drawn directly from the grid or from on-site battery storage, it will not be cheap. He also stated that the engineering and technology challenges for charging sites could be significant, given the geographic locations of California’s truck parking sites relative to the grid, the anticipated load growth from truck charging, and the capacity of certain electrical feeder lines. Tim believes these challenges and their costs have already made several public bus fleets (subject to a separate CARB zero- emission rule) reverse course on battery-electric buses in favor of hydrogen fuel cell electric buses.
On the costs of hydrogen, currently retailing somewhere between $16 to $36 per kg, Dr. Lipman was very clear that it is too high. He points to the war in Ukraine, and the entry of California refiners into the low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS) credits program, as being significant contributors to the current cost issue. The Ukraine war has caused the costs of natural gas, a raw material for the steam reformation of hydrogen, to rise sharply; and the conversion of some California refineries to renewable fuels has halved the payments available for LCSF credits from CARB for the sale of hydrogen. However, he believes that the recent announcement of $7 billion in federal grant funding to establish regional clean hydrogen hubs in 16 states will have a big impact on driving down costs. Because of his involvement in California’s successful application to the U.S. Department of Energy for one of these hubs, Tim was reluctant to give his thoughts on how much hydrogen could retail for, simply saying that the hubs will make hydrogen a lot cheaper.
Finally, Tim took some time to explore the comments on ‘green’ hydrogen by MAN’s CEO, noting that it might be more helpful to look at the fuel’s production and carbon intensity. Tim explained that the term ‘green’ hydrogen means production of the gas from the electrolysis of water using renewable electricity. This pathway is preferred by many in the environmental movement, as it dispenses with the steam reformation of methane completely. Hydrogen from any form of methane is viewed by some as a bait and switch strategy by a fossil fuels industry, the currently leading producer of U.S. hydrogen, seeking to extend the use of natural gas.
However, Tim pointed out that other production methods, such as the steam reformation of bio-gas (i.e. methane created from animal manure or wastewater bio-digestors) could be less carbon intensive than ‘green’ hydrogen. This is due to the fact that the releasing of bio-gas directly to the atmosphere has a much more detrimental impact on climate than converting it to hydrogen. Therefore, if we look to carbon intensity and climate impacts as our north star (and don’t get hung up on the hydrogen color wheel), investing in these other low-carbon production methods could increase hydrogen supply and bring down costs significantly. This certainly would change the economics of the fuel dramatically for Mr. Vlaskamp and his customers.
I also spoke with Dr. Matt Miyasato, Vice President of Strategic Growth and Government Affairs for FirstElement Fuel, the largest retailer of hydrogen fuel stations in the world. Prior to joining FirstElement Fuel, Matt served as Deputy Executive Officer and Chief Technologist at the South Coast Air Quality Management District. Matt was taken aback by the MAN CEO’s comments, stating: “This is really premature! There is no silver bullet, and we are going to need all the solutions.” Matt went on to say that electricity is a great solution for fleets traveling shorter routes (up to 40 miles), with fixed hubs that are well supplied with electricity and a duty cycle that allows for overnight charging. However, he too cautioned regarding the ability to install the charging infrastructure, even in the best of circumstances. He expressed concern with the existing grid infrastructure, the possible need for battery banks to charge multiple vehicles, the huge amount of electricity needed, and the rate at which vehicles can charge. In fact, Dr. Miyasato’s main objection to Mr. Vlaskamp’s comments was that they totally discounted the needs of many drivers and fleets. For some truckers, the time required to recharge batteries is simply not practical or cost effective. Time is money in the trucking business, and extensive wait times to recharge trucks won’t cut it.
That’s not to say that the hydrogen infrastructure is perfect. Matt did own up to issues related to the cost of the fuel and the ability to permit, roll out, and maintain stations. However, he also noted that no one had yet built an electrical retail infrastructure for long-distance truck routes (those over 200 miles), whereas his company planned to launch their first truck fueling station in Oakland, California, in December 2023. He said, “With what we know today about costs and engineering, it would be very short-sighted to write off any technology path at this point.”
Finally, I spoke with Jaimie Levin, Director of West Coast Operations and Senior Managing Consultant for the Atlanta-based Center for Transportation and the Environment (CTE). Jaimie previously worked as Director of Environmental Technology at the Alameda-Contra Costa Transit District (AC Transit) where he oversaw the alternative fuels deployment program. He currently heads up the NorCAL ZERO advanced technology demonstration project, which is bringing 30 Hyundai Xcient fuel cell electric trucks into service at the Port of Oakland in northern California. These Class 8 vehicles have a range of between 400 and 500 miles and a payload capacity of 39,000 lbs. This project is in the road trials phase, with 10 trucks currently deployed hauling steel from the port to California’s Central Valley.
Jaimie stated that the current crop of Class 8 battery-electric trucks, while working fine in the hub model described by Dr. Miyasato, were “really working against what truckers need.” He cited four critical factors for truckers – range, payload capacity, fueling speed, and resiliency. On range, Jaimie states that trucks with variable routes can’t have limits. They need to be able to do whatever route and distance are required by a job. On payload, he cited the total weight limits on the California and national highway system as being a serious issue for battery-electric trucks. The weight of current battery trucks that can travel 250 miles could be as much as 2,000 lbs. more than their diesel counterparts. In an industry where payload is ‘the’ thing, that would reduce carrying capacity and profit. On fueling speed, Jaimie stated that truckers can’t wait around for an hour for their rig to charge up. Costs and deadlines simply won’t allow it. Lastly, on resiliency, he talked about the strain put on California’s grid in the last few years by wildfires, extreme heat, and public safety power shutoff events. He notes that in trucking, you can’t have uncertainty on whether you can refuel your vehicle or not. An excellent point, considering that 77 percent of California communities rely solely on trucking for the movement of their goods.On the cost of fuel, Jaimie reiterated that it needs to come down, citing the same factors previously noted, and hopes that the hydrogen hubs will impact prices. On the cost of the trucks themselves, he believes that the economies of scale will have a big impact on driving down the total cost of ownership, making them comparable to diesel, but agrees that the initial cost of the truck itself will remain high.
I have spent some time looking at the future of battery technology – including lighter weight and faster charging options - and I discussed this with all three experts. While they see the new offerings as solving some issues with current battery trucks, they believe that they do not move the needle on power availability and the cost of infrastructure to charge electric trucks.
Hydrogen is far from done in terms of being a fuel for heavy-duty trucks, but its cost needs to come down quickly! Also, issues with the electric infrastructure and the location of California’s truck parking will hinder the rollout of battery-electric vehicles. This means neither technology is perfect and neither meets the needs of every trucking duty cycle. So, rather than trying to pick the winner in this technology horse race, truckers will need to explore their options based on their own unique locations and business needs. This won’t be easy but eliminating technologies out of hand makes no sense at this point.
Damian Breen is the founder of Environmental Communication Strategies and former Deputy Executive Officer of the Bay Area Air Quality Management District in California.
Hydrogen has been on the minds of automakers for decades. Ever since GCJ editors experienced the hydrogen fuel cell Mercedes-Benz NECAR 2 (New Electric Car) on the streets of Berlin back in the mid-1990s, we’ve been believers that hydrogen could prove to be an important part of our zero-emission driving future. Over the years, concept, demonstration, and production hydrogen vehicles have been fielded by many automakers, from Chrysler, Ford and Nissan to Honda, Hyundai, and Toyota. One of the most notable was GM’s Sequel unveiled some 18 years ago, which followed in the footsteps of the automaker's Hi-wire hydrogen fuel cell concept Green Car Journal editors drove in 2003. The Sequel hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) was decidedly ahead of its time with its skateboard platform, sandwich-style floor, steer-by-wire technology, lithium-ion batteries, and 10,000 psi fuel tanks. Read our take on GM’s groundbreaking Sequel, pulled from our archives just as it appeared in the magazine's Spring 2005 issue.
Excerpted from Spring 2005 Issue: Reality check time. When General Motors debuted the AUTOnomy and Hy-wire advanced technology concept cars at the Detroit and Paris auto shows three years ago, the vision of real-world hydrogen powered fuel cell cars still seemed very far away. Sequel brings those concepts home in a ‘do-able’ vehicle that is suddenly a lot less like science fiction and more like Main Street.
Clearly, GM hasn’t lost sight of what seemed to many a lofty goal when the company announced its intention to design and validate a fuel cell propulsion system that could be manufactured and sold by 2010. While this date certainly won’t see mass commercialization of fuel cell vehicles at GM’s new car showrooms, the General is surely aiming at reaching that milestone with technology and vehicles that can be sold – at a cost far lower than today’s fuel cell vehicles – to fleets and others willing to pay the price to be early adopters.
Sequel utilizes GM’s concept of a separate, low-profile skateboard chassis that completely houses the fuel cell propulsion system. By decoupling the rolling chassis from the bodyshell and utilizing bi-wire control technology, Sequel’s architecture offers incredible flexibility for future models. That flexibility could provide a significant advantage as merging technologies bring fuel cells closer to the showroom.
While a concept, Sequel aims to create fuel cell performance that meshes well with the kind of driving experience expected of modern vehicles. By utilizing three lightweight, high-pressure carbon composite hydrogen storage tanks, completely housed in the 11-inch thick chassis, Sequel boasts a driving range of about 300 miles. Combining electric motor front-wheel-drive with separate electric wheel hub motors at each rear wheel, Sequel is able to deliver all-wheel-drive traction and a noticeable increase in acceleration. According to GM, Sequel will scoot from 0-30 mph in three seconds and reach 60 mph in just over nine seconds. Top speed is said to be 90 mph.
That performance is made possible by a transversely mounted, three phase 80 horsepower (60 kW) electric motor at the front of the chassis and two 34 hp (25 kW) three phase electric wheel hub motors at the rear, which together deliver a total torque output of 2,506 lb-ft at the wheels.
GM’s skateboard chassis design holds several key advantages. Most significant is its inherent low center of gravity, which dramatically increases vehicle stability. With Sequel, GM engineers were able to deliver an ideal 50-50 weight distribution by placing the lithium-ion battery pack at the rear of the chassis, offsetting the motor mass up front. The hydrogen fuel cell stack is placed directly behind the front wheels beneath the driver/passenger compartment.
Midship, you’ll find the three high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks mounted in the sandwich style chassis, a location that provides the best protection from crash intrusion. These tanks have a service pressure of 10,000 psi, allowing them to carry much greater amounts of hydrogen than the 5,000 psi tanks used in the Hy-wire concept.
A high-power 65 kW lithium ion battery is employed for the power demands of launch and acceleration, but once up to speed, Sequel can cruise solely on the fuel cell. Auxiliary power generated by the fuel cell at cruising speed is combined with regenerative braking to top off the battery charge. Sequel utilizes aluminum substructures in the chassis design and extensive use of aluminum in the body panels and structure to minimize weight.
Sequel is also the showcase for GM’s next-generation fuel cell technology. The fuel cell stack delivers 25 percent more power than previous models. GM’s Fuel Cell Product Engineering facility in Honeoye Falls, New York, is working to simplify and better integrate the overall fuel cell stack and power module system design, which will ultimately drive down the cost of production.
”A fuel cell system is more efficient than an internal combustion engine, but its energy conversion is totally different and requires much more heat to be removed via the coolant,” points out Lothar Matejcek, project manager of GM Fuel Cell Activities in Mainz-Kastel, Germany. To extract the heat, Sequel uses multiple radiators with three large openings in the front of the vehicle and two additional openings in the rear. These openings are well integrated into the overall vehicle design and lend a very aggressive look to the body profile. This attention to cooling demands are said to allow the Sequel to operate at maximum power with full air conditioning even on 100 degree F days.
By-wire controls are utilized for all Sequel systems. Steering, braking, and acceleration are all free of mechanical and hydraulic control linkages. Pushing a pedal or turning the steering wheel sends an electronic signal from the vehicle controller to modulate power output, apply braking, and precisely control steering. Steer-by-wire on the Sequel processes steering inputs through a computer, actuating the front steering rack and two rear wheel steering actuators based on vehicle speed and driving conditions.
A major advantage to the separate low-profile chassis design is incredible flexibility in body and interior design, configuration, and packaging. Sequel is addressing a hot spot in the current vehicle market – the sport/luxury crossover SUV. In fact, GM compares Sequel’s size to the current Cadillac SRX crossover, with its measurements of 196.6 inches in overall length, 66.8 inches in height, and its 119.7 inch wheelbase.
Styling is contemporary, with a broad shouldered and aggressive stance enhanced by crisp lines that blend hard edges with flowing curves. The chassis design delivers wheels pushed to far corners of the body structure with little intrusion into the cabin area. GM stylists were careful not to push the design envelope too far with this concept, though, to deliver the notion that this is a real-world vehicle.
The five passenger interior is accessed through a pair of conventional doors up front with rear suicide-style door on either side of the cabin. There is no obstruction to the spacious interior with both doors open. Innovations inside are tempered by practicality. While this is a concept, the message is clear that Sequel is credible transport. One of the more striking design elements is the unique center glass sunroof that runs the length of the top. It is actually a series of individual glass panels that slide rearward and pivot up to provide a very airy cockpit.
The front passenger seat rotates 180 degrees to provide a conference-style seating configuration. Although it is drive-by-wire, all controls are familiar with a traditional steering wheel, accelerator, and brake pedals. The center console travels on a track that allows it to move from its normal location between the front seats to an aft position closer to rear seat passengers. Hinged at the front, the console’s lid pivots forward to reveal the Sequel’s audio, DVD, and navigation system. When in use as an entertainment center, the console is easily moved to the rear seat passengers for DVD movie viewing. The interior look and feel is contemporary and tasteful with metal and wood accents combined with a palette of plum, rice, and wasabi hue trim.
Sequel is the culmination of a global effort by General Motors to advance fuel cell vehicle design. Nearly 200 suppliers from around the world were sourced to fuse the latest technology into a vehicle that brings a clean, hydrogen fueled future a bit closer to home.
In recent years, state energy and regulatory agencies have modeled plans that conclude hydrogen is required to achieve deep decarbonization targets. Air pollution continues to worsen across the U.S. with hydrogen and fuel cells seen as part of the answer. For example, as a one-to-one replacement for diesel powered vehicles, equipment, and generators, hydrogen fuel cells have significant potential to decrease the negative air quality impacts this diesel equipment causes and eliminate their carbon emissions.
With California’s current grid reliability challenges and need for more power generation capacity – coupled with the state’s continuing “overdemand” – all energy and mobility solutions must be brought to bear. National Lab studies have demonstrated the grid infrastructure required to charge battery electric vehicles of all sizes. The use of fuel cell electric vehicles, fueled by hydrogen, avoid further compounding grid reliability challenges. The California Air Resources Board recent Hydrogen Station Self-Sufficiency Report determined that an additional $300 million investment in hydrogen infrastructure, coupled with existing incentives like the Low Carbon Fuel Standard, would lead to financial self-sufficiency of a fuel cell electric vehicle and hydrogen station network by 2030, avoiding additional upgrade costs and strain on the grid.
At the federal level, the multi-billion-dollar commitment to hydrogen and fuel cell programs in the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Job Act (IIJA) has spurred a flurry of planning, project development, and investment in the hydrogen sector. States in every U.S. region have expressed support for project applications to the $8 billion Department of Energy hydrogen hub program. The awarded hubs will showcase production of hydrogen, distribution and delivery infrastructure, and broad end uses of hydrogen and fuel cells in the electricity, industrial, and transportation sectors.
States from California to New York to Texas are committing significant funding and resources to support the development of these hydrogen hubs. The DOE and other agencies are launching additional energy manufacturing, clean electricity, zero-emission vehicle, and goods movement programs funded by the IIJA to further support hydrogen use alongside other clean energy technologies. Project developers and investors are simultaneously seeking guidance on the use of tax credits for hydrogen and fuel cells that came from the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022.
On the passenger light-duty vehicle side, Toyota and Hyundai continue to sell Mirai and Nexo hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in California. There are now over 15,471 fuel cell electric cars sold and leased in the U.S. In February, Honda announced a joint venture with General Motors to deliver a new fuel cell system not only for its light-duty vehicles but also for use in heavy-duty trucks, stationary power generation, and construction equipment. In early 2022, BMW announced its continued commitment to develop hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles with on-road demonstration of the iX5 to begin in 2023.
Traditional manufacturers of engines and heavy-duty vehicles are partnering with clean energy companies to rapidly bring fuel cell electric vehicles to market in high volume, heavily polluted transportation corridors, with the assistance of the Hybrid and Zero-Emission Truck and Bus Voucher Incentive Program. Already, on-road testing of fuel cell systems and vehicles made by Ballard Power Systems, Cummins, Hyzon Motors, Nikola Motors, and Toyota is underway. Off-road, the Port of Long Beach is working with Toyota and FuelCell Energy using a fuel cell to generate power, heat, and hydrogen, the latter used to fuel Toyota equipment at the port and Toyota Mirai vehicles coming off the ship. Byproduct water from the fuel cell’s hydrogen production is used to wash the cars.
Presently, the largest throughput of hydrogen is in the off-road and materials handling sectors. In creating the first commercially viable market for hydrogen fuel cell technology, Plug Power has deployed more than 60,000 fuel cell systems and over 200 fueling stations, more than anyone else in the world, and is the largest buyer of liquid hydrogen. Plug customers have completed more than 55 million hydrogen fills into forklifts and other material handling equipment used in warehouses, including those operated by companies like Amazon and Walmart, showing the economic value of fuel cell powered forklifts. Contributing to their increased productivity throughput are advantages like rapid hydrogen refueling and a smaller overall footprint than battery electric counterparts that require space for chargers.
The State of California is considering the level of support needed for the required hydrogen fueling infrastructure to service all on-road fuel cell electric vehicles. Documents from the Hydrogen Fuel Cell Partnership illustrate the fueling stations needed for light-duty passenger vehicles and heavy-duty trucks that would create a refueling network for launching a self-sustaining market. This would serve to quickly decarbonize key transportation corridors and improve air quality in the urban, rural, and agricultural communities along these corridors.
Public transit agencies have been operating or conducting real-world testing of hydrogen fuel cell buses in their fleets . Following operational bus trials, many agencies concluded that both battery and fuel cell electric buses are required. Among the benefits cited for fuel cell buses are lower operating costs, often due to avoiding the investment required for battery electric buses such as charging stations and the need to expand capacity at local electric substations. In addition, the longer range and greater power density of fuel cell electric vehicles can support transit operations that must deal with varied, hilly terrain and longer routes.
California currently has 66 fuel cell electric buses in service with another 100+ committed to be placed in operation. Many transit agencies are set to follow the pioneering efforts of Alameda-Contra Costa Transit and SunLine Transit with their fleets of fuel cell electric buses and hydrogen refueling infrastructure. Among these are California’s Foothill Transit, Orange County Transit, and Humboldt Transit. Outside California, Stark County Transit in Ohio and Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) in Philadelphia are committed to using hydrogen fuel cell buses to meet their service needs.
Hydrogen is here. Debates on energy resources should include discussion of best fit, rather than either-or. There is significant public and private recognition across the U.S that an all-of-the-above strategy is needed to meet our varied energy requirements and decarbonization goals, and hydrogen is poised to make an immediate and growing contribution to a global decarbonization strategy.
Katrina Fritz is the Executive Director of the California Hydrogen Business Council (CHBC).
There is no denying the recent growth in the hydrogen and fuel cell industry – growth in interest and awareness; in public and private sector investment; in federal, state, and regional commitments; in the overall portfolio and scale of product offerings; and in the range of new players entering the marketplace.
As the national advocate for the industry, the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association (FCHEA) has long been active on Capitol Hill in Washington, DC, and around the country, working with champions in Congress, key allies, and our diverse membership on key issues such as policies and programmatic funding, codes and standards development and harmonization, and education and outreach.
Over the past year, FCHEA has grown as well, expanding the association not just in size, but also in scope of market sectors, innovative technologies, and hydrogen generation pathways, representing the full spectrum of the industry from production to utilization, including mobility.
Around the world, hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a key tool in the decarbonization of society, specifically hard to abate sectors, including medium- and heavy-duty transportation, both on the road and off. Here in the U.S., there are already tens of thousands of fuel cell-powered cars, buses, and material handling vehicles deployed across the country, all running on hydrogen. In parallel, fuel cells are also providing resilient, reliant backup power to hybrid zero-emission EV charging solutions. Customers include major retailers such as Walmart and Amazon, as well as transit agencies and delivery companies.
Hydrogen’s potential to reduce emissions and fossil fuel use, and with the advantages of fast refueling, lighter weight, and long range, are opening pathways in logistics, aviation, and shipping. We are seeing more fuel cell trucks, utility vehicles, and even planes, trains, and ships enter operation and testing in the U.S. and around the world.
At the federal level, hydrogen and fuel cell technologies received a well-deserved boost in funding and support through the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The law, signed in November 2021, included $9.5 billion for clean hydrogen, with the bulk ($8 billion) allocated to developing ‘Hydrogen Hubs’ that will demonstrate diverse methods of production, processing, delivery, storage, and end-use of clean hydrogen across America.
While the hub funding has deservedly received a lot of attention from interested parties seeking to stake a claim in their respective region or state, the Infrastructure Act also contained numerous other provisions where hydrogen and fuel cells could make a significant impact in decarbonizing the nation’s transportation network. This includes programs focused on Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement; Alternative Fuel Infrastructure; Zero-Emission Ferries and Buses; Port Infrastructure; and more.
FCHEA’s membership includes automotive, trucking, and fuel cell original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) with products geared towards light, medium, and heavy-duty transportation applications. These companies are developing and deploying a range of zero-emission vehicles for land, sea, and air, as well as working with other members and partners on the necessary hydrogen infrastructure to support them. As these other sections of the Infrastructure Bill start to take shape, we expect more prospects for our members and the technologies they offer, especially in support of the Hydrogen Hubs once that funding is awarded, as well as initiatives to green the nation’s ports, airports, and highways.
Outside of federal funding, members are investing billions of dollars in new and expanded facilities to increase U.S. hydrogen generation capacity across the country, and into new states and areas. These investments will not only expand supply but will also create jobs and boost economic growth in and around those locations.
FCHEA is excited for these opportunities because we believe in hydrogen and fuel cells and see firsthand the tremendous benefits they already bring to a range of applications and customers. With significant plans for scale-up of hydrogen production and utilization across the country, those benefits will be amplified, helping us reach the necessary environmental goals to decarbonize across industry sectors and stay competitive with the rest of the world down the road.
Frank Wolak is President and CEO of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association in Washington DC.
It wasn’t always electric vehicles dominating the news. In recent decades there was also great focus on hydrogen vehicles, which continues in the background today. One pioneer worth noting is the late Stanford Ovshinsky, who with his scientist wife Iris founded ECD Ovonics in 1960. Among the company’s technologies based on its discoveries are Ovonic nickel-hydride batteries, thin-film photovoltaics, and the Ovonic metal hydride fuel cell . In the early 2000s, ECD Ovonics showcased its innovative solid metal hydrogen storage in several second-generation Toyota Prius hydrogen-hybrid vehicles. Our report on these vehicles is excerpted just as it ran in Green Car Journal’s Fall 2005 issue.
Excerpted from Fall 2005 Issue: As the “hydrogen highway” vision takes form through incremental technology advancements and demonstrations on many levels, much of the glory is captured by hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. It’s true that they’re marvels of technology and are deserving of this attention. As shared in Green Car Journal’s Summer 2005 issue (Hydrogen/Where We Are on the Drive to the Future), automakers have come a long way and these vehicles are so good, they make it seem effortless to drive on this most environmentally positive fuel. But that’s far from the case.
The vehicles are truly million dollar machines, using hand- built or limited production componentry handsomely packaged within normal-looking sedans, minivans, and SUVs. They drive seamlessly, for the most part, assuring us that the mission of bringing hydrogen vehicles to the highway can be accomplished. Still, there’s a lot of work ahead to make this vision workable – costs must come down, fuel cell durability must improve, and challenges that go beyond the vehicles themselves must be met. Creating hydrogen economically is one of them, as is developing a widespread refueling infrastructure. Storing hydrogen is yet another significant technical challenge, and that’s what this story is about, although a car once again appears to be the star.
This story begins and ends with Stanford Ovshinsky, an inventor of rarified stature who, many decades ago, made discoveries involving amorphous and disordered materials that created a whole new area of materials science. He was recognized with a Time Magazine “Heroes of the Planet Award” because of this work and how it led to many breakthrough applications, including his patented nickel-metal-hydride batteries (he and the company he founded, Rochester Hills, Michigan-based Energy Conversion Devices, hold the patents). As it turns out, this work has also led to the ability to store hydrogen in solid form at low pressure, a technology being developed by ECD business unit Ovonic Hydrogen Systems.
This is no small thing. Before we can buy a hydrogen-fueled vehicle in the showroom, some big technical hurdles need to be overcome in the lab, and one of the biggest is hydrogen storage. A hydrogen vehicle’s range depends directly on how efficiently this fuel can be converted to motive power and, more fundamentally, how much fuel can be stored on-board. Range will be especially important in the early years of hydrogen vehicle commercialization since a refueling infrastructure will still be in its infancy.
Automakers have been grappling with the issue for a long time. Liquid hydrogen, championed most visibly by BMW, is attractive because a much greater amount of liquid hydrogen can be stored in a given tank size than gaseous hydrogen. This translates to greater range. However, the downside is that hydrogen must be stored at -423 degrees F to keep it in liquid form, and getting it down to this temperature requires a lot of energy and special fueling equipment.
Most automakers use gaseous hydrogen in their developmental fuel cell and hydrogen internal combustion vehicles because of this. However, gaseous storage also has its challenges. Current 5,000 psi (pounds per square inch) hydrogen cylinders simply don’t hold enough fuel for a decent driving range. That has prompted many automakers to explore a new generation of even higher 10,000 psi hydrogen storage cylinders, which require additional changes to support this high pressure including 10,000 psi-capable lines, fittings, and dispensing equipment.
Then there’s the approach offered by Ovonic Hydrogen Systems’ solid hydrogen storage, a concept so clever and intriguing it seems improbable...yet it works. A tank containing powdered metal alloys is filled with hydrogen at relatively low 1,500 psi. Removing heat during the process causes the metal to absorb hydrogen like a sponge, and a new material called a metal hydride is created. Hydrogen stored in solid form like this is in a safer state and can be stored within a tank at a lower 250 psi. On-board systems determine when hydrogen is needed by an engine or fuel cell, providing heat to reverse the process so gaseous hydrogen is released from the hydride and into the fuel system. In an interesting phenomenon, a greater volume of hydrogen can be stored in the same size cylinder with metal alloy than
without it, a consideration that provides better driving range.
Several years ago, Green Car Journal drove a 2002 Toyota Prius hybrid equipped with such a system. Operating as a hydrogen hybrid vehicle, it produced near-zero emissions and drove seamlessly. Ovonic Hydrogen Systems has now gone one better by offering several second-generation Prius hybrids equipped with a similar system to showcase its solid metal hydrogen storage. Some of these vehicles will operate as part of a hydrogen hybrid demonstration fleet at Southern California’s South Coast Air Quality Management District in Diamond Bar, California, a program that will prove the viability of hydrogen hybrids in everyday use.
Beyond the solid hydrogen storage, other modifications to these vehicles include vents and leak detectors to ensure safe operation, as well as hydrogen-compatible fuel lines, an engine management computer that operates new gaseous fuel injectors, and a variety of sensors. A turbocharger is used to compensate for the lower engine output that comes with combusting hydrogen. Extra battery modules are also added for better electric motor performance.
All this technology is wrapped within sharp-looking demonstration vehicles that promise to forward the company’s solid hydrogen storage message in a very high-profile way. These high-tech cars also demonstrate that hydrogen internal combustion could represent a more readily-achievable interim step toward the hydrogen highway as more complex and expensive fuel cell vehicles evolve in coming years. With potentially larger numbers of more affordable internal combustion hydrogen vehicles on the road, there’s also more incentive for building the hydrogen refueling infrastructure that will be needed for those fuel cell vehicles in the future.
The past few decades have seen plenty of electrified concept vehicles come and go. Many were merely design or technology exercises to generate interest and excitement for an automaker’s future direction. Some concepts led the way to production vehicles in the short years ahead. One that stands out as being well ahead of its time is Volkswagen’s Space Up! Blue concept that was unveiled in 2007. The interesting thing about this concept is that it clearly shared a vision that has led the way to the VW I.D. Buzz concept of today, and the production version of this newest iteration of the microbus that’s being revealed soon. This article shares details of VW’s early exploration of an electric microbus some 15 years ago, presented as it originally ran in Green Car Journal’s Winter 2007 issue.
Take a look at the Volkswagen Space Up! Blue concept car, and the company hopes you’ll conjure up fond memories of the 1950s VW Microbus. With four roof windows, butterfly doors, and a motor at the rear, the concept resembles a modern, 7/8th scale take on the original. But unlike the ‘hippy van’ of yore that came to symbolize the eco lifestyle, this concept’s powerplant actually bears it out.
Replacing the boxer engine is a 60 horsepower electric motor that draws its power from a dozen lithium-ion batteries. These batteries provide enough energy for a 65 mile all-electric trip. After that the Space Up! Blue is either refueled by plugging into an electrical outlet or seamlessly powered by an on-board fuel cell for another 155 miles. A nice touch is provided by a large solar panel on the roof that feeds up to 150 watts to the battery.
Fueled by an underbody compressed hydrogen tank, the fuel cell is a new high temperature unit developed by VW’s dedicated research center in Germany. A new high temperature membrane and electrodes allow operating temperatures of up to 320 degrees F, far beyond current low temperature fuel cells whose water-containing membranes are limited to water’s boiling point. VW points out that higher operating temperatures mean a much simpler cooling and water management system is needed, making the whole system more compact, affordable, and efficient.
The Space Up! Blue concept is the third variant of VW’s new small family of concept cars to appear at major auto shows in just a few months, following the Up! concept from Frankfurt and the larger Space Up! concept from Tokyo. Despite the resulting unwieldy naming scheme, the concepts collectively offer VW’s vision for a new kind of small car that is cleverly packaged and simply styled. Now with electric drive, plug-in capability, and advanced fuel cell technology, we like where this vision is aimed.
Lee Iacocca distinguished himself as an automotive icon over a career that spanned nearly six decades. A hero to many for his leadership role in saving the former Chrysler Corporation from extinction, Iacocca is revered as the father of the Ford Mustang and the man who brought many beloved performance vehicles to American showrooms. Not inconsequentially, he also shepherded to market the Dodge Caravan, the world’s first minivan, changing forever the way that families seek mobility. Iacocca ventured into the environmental automotive realm with Chrysler’s electric TEVan debut under his watch in 1992, and then with electric bicycles and low-speed electric vehicles – decades ahead of today’s trend toward electric bikes – after retiring from Chrysler. The son of Italian immigrants, he exemplified love-of-country by serving as chairman of the Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation in the effort to renew our national icon in the early 1990s, an appointment made by President Ronald Reagan. Lee Iacocca passed in 2019 at the age of 94.
This article shares a 2004 interview of Lee Iacocca conducted by editor/publisher Ron Cogan and is presented as it originally ran in Green Car Journal’s Spring 2004 issue.
Ron Cogan: After a long and storied career in the auto business, what motivated you to get into light electric transportation like electric bikes?
Lee Iacocca: “Until 1950, the auto business was not that huge. But two things happened. Eisenhower created a 42,000 mile road system and the G.I. bill. The guys came home, moved to the suburbs, and had a new life outside of the city and had two kids. We caught them in the sixties with the Mustang but that was just for fun. Then twenty years passed, and we caught them with minivans because their lives changed.
“The reason I tell you this story is, naively enough, I thought I followed the baby boomers so long I knew them, even though I wasn’t one of them. I got them in 1964, I got them in 1984, and I would get them in 2004 with something electric. The same guy who now has kids and grandkids buys our bike and says it seems like an oxymoron to have a bike that you don’t have to pedal, but you can. It has a seven speed Shimano derailleur on it, first class. But when the kids come home he can’t keep up with the grandkids, so he goes for a ride and uses the electric one on the hills. It doesn’t embarrass him. That was a great theory, but I never made it work.
“I have a folding bike in my garage, it’s a knockout. It folds, it goes in the back of a minivan or Jeep, and I thought all the car dealers in America would have embraced it as an option because it gives you mobility where you can’t use internal combustion engines. I tried to force it, but in five years we’ve only sold about 25,000. But the market for bikes is so huge, all you have to do is get a small percentage of ‘em to say, ‘I’ll give electric a whirl.’
“The time is not here for electric cars. I’ve said that very openly. But the technology was here for light electric transportation and I thought there was demand, but I was wrong. I remember Pininfarina’s car. They had a hybrid in it, and I said, ‘Man this is off to the races, it might get support.’ In the background we’ll sell bicycles. It was light electric transportation systems and I said, ‘Let’s do it.’”
RC: So the vision was that electric bikes would lead to other light electric vehicles like neighborhood EVs and lightweight hybrids like the Pininfarina Ethos. How were you going to do this?
Iacocca: “I wanted every university to get on Lee’s Green Team. I wanted them to wear green jackets on campus, put a bike in every bookstore, and we’d get young people to say ‘Wow!’ If I get a bike in every garage, young kids are gonna say, ‘Hey dad, why do we have three cars and none of them are green?’ They’ll force the issue where older generations won’t. So, that’s what I tried to do when I came here.
“We’ve got a damn good product, at a damn good price. Why did it fail? Well, like fuel cells will fail…the distribution system. I chose car dealers to sell bikes because I knew most of them. Big mistake. It was introduced right in the heart of three years of all-time car and truck sales. Even my close friends who were dealers and bought 25 to 50 of them as a favor to me never put anybody on the showroom floor to sell them, never. So it didn’t work, and now we’re going to independent bike dealers.”
RC: You say that fuel cells will fail? What about the billions that automakers are spending developing fuel cell vehicles?
Iacocca: “Well, they’ll bet the farm on fuel cells, and it ain’t gonna happen easily. Not because I’m an expert here in California, but I’ve dealt with GM research guys and GM has so much going with fuel cells, although Chrysler, through Ballard, has also invested a ton of money in fuel cell technology. But they’re missing the whole problem here. The technology’s probably here now but the challenge is to change the distribution system. Once you’ve got the hydrogen – a challenge in itself – we’ve got to figure out how to deliver it to customers. Developing the infrastructure will require a huge investment. And what are you going to knock out? Wipe out the oil industry at retail levels? You can’t do that. Fuel cells are getting touted too heavily, I think. Am I for it? Yeah, but I don’t think I’ll live long enough to see it.”
RC: Where does politics fit into all this?
Iacocca: “I’ve written two books and I’ve taken the Japanese apart because of their trade practices, but what I’ve really taken apart is that this country does not have an energy policy. I’ve gone through nine Presidents of the United States and I can’t get them in twenty-five words or less to tell me what our energy policy is. I know that we’re at war because of oil, probably. Deep down, we don’t want to talk about it. We’re there for terrorism, right? We’ve got to make democracy come alive in the Mideast. That’s the oil capital of the world and we can’t avoid it. In a democratic nation, a free-enterprise nation, we’ve put up with a cartel and accepted it, and now we’re hooked on their oil.”
RC: What about China?
Iacocca: “Beijing announced they’re going to put restrictions on fuel economy that are stricter than the United States. They’re tweaking our tail here. They’re going to leapfrog and start with hybrids... they don’t want anyone coming over there and giving them a gas-guzzler. They have too much pollution, they depend too much on foreign oil, and they want to stop it.
“Well, that sounds like us in L.A. – we have too much pollution, we want to stop it. We’ve been talking, clacking our gums for 20 years, and nobody really wants to pay an extra dime for clean air. They just don’t want to do it. I’ve been in California 10 years and I’ve never heard people talk more about smog and clean air and do nothing about it, absolutely nothing. The Air Resources Board has tried their best and Detroit fought ‘em like hell, let’s face it.”
RC: Honda and Toyota were the first to market with hybrid vehicles. Many consider them to be in the lead as U.S. automakers are just now striving to bring their own hybrids to the showroom. What’s your take on this?
Iacocca: “I’ve worked with hybrids probably all my life and, by the way, the time has come. I’ve said this many times recently, that Detroit better get cracking or we’re going to be lost in the dust. What are they waiting for? Hybrids are complex and they’re more expensive, but they give you terrific gas mileage and it’s a start towards zero emissions. Is it going to happen? As sure as we’re sitting here…can’t fight it any longer. So it might be by small increments, but I would predict within three years from today, if you don’t have a hybrid car or hybrid SUV, you’re not going to be selling them.
“Every invention brings with it a set of opportunities but also a set of problems, and that’s where you’ve got to direct your attention today. I don’t think anybody has more incentive than the Big Three or whoever is left, maybe the Big Two after the Germans bought Chrysler. So the greatest incentive is for the petroleum industry and the biggest user of that petroleum, the U.S. car and truck industry, to get going or somebody’s going to knock the hell out of them.”
Even amid the huge effort now underway to gain market share with new and coming battery electric vehicles, automakers show a continuing interest in keeping the potential of hydrogen vehicles alive. Indeed, the most high-profile players in this space are taking the next steps toward normalizing the way we look at zero-emission hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, models that drive on electricity generated by an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen.
One of the advantages of a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle has been its ability to refuel in five minutes and then deliver 300 or more miles of driving range. That’s about the same amount of time it takes to fill a gas tank, an important baseline. Electric vehicle batteries, on the other hand, typically take many hours to charge. Today’s electric vehicle fast-charging, and the potential for newly-developed extreme fast charging (XFC) technology, could diminish the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle’s rapid refueling advantage.
Still, high-profile players in the auto industry like Honda, Hyundai, and Toyota apparently feel strongly that hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) may play an important part in our driving future. Honda currently leases the Clarity Fuel Cell sedan to California residents living or working in areas where hydrogen fueling stations are available. Hyundai also offers its NEXO hydrogen fuel cell crossover model and Toyota its Mirai fuel cell sedan. Since there are only 47 hydrogen stations in the U.S. with 42 of these in California, it’s really no surprise that all three automakers focus their fuel cell vehicle sales exclusively to limited areas with hydrogen fueling.
Underscoring hydrogen’s continuing momentum, Toyota will shortly release its second generation Mirai sedan. Introduced five years ago as the first fuel cell model offered for sale to retail customers, Toyota’s current Mirai is as notable for its styling as it is for its advanced zero-emission propulsion. Its swoopy, angular, and stylistically forward design does speak ‘future” – which, by the way, is what ‘Mirai’ actually means in Japanese – but that design has been a bit too much for most folks’ taste. The coming, all-new 2021 Mirai changes all that.
As shown by the new model’s concept, the second-generation Mirai is nicely sculpted with smooth-flowing lines, presenting as a stylish mainstream sedan with coupe-like design influences. Evolving from the front-drive first-generation Mirai, it uses a new rear-drive platform with a more rigid body structure that’s longer, lower, and wider than its predecessor, riding on a 114.9-inch wheelbase and featuring a length of 195.8-inches with a 74.2-inch width.
This new design is accompanied by a reimagined interior that’s more spacious and now allows for five passenger seating rather than four. Its multimedia system includes navigation and dynamic audio provided by a JBL sound system with 14 speakers. The Mirai’s handsomely sculpted dash features a 12.3-inch, high resolution TFT touchscreen. Drivetrain advancements are also part of the package. While full details have not yet been disclosed, the 2021 Mirai is expected to feature a more advanced fuel cell system featuring increased performance and up to 30 percent greater driving range. Like the model before it, the new Mirai is capable of filling up its hydrogen tank in just five minutes.
Beyond light-duty vehicles, where hydrogen could become a major transportation fuel is in over-the-road trucks that travel fixed routes, where hydrogen refueling stations are available. While adding larger and heavier batteries to increase the range of personal-use electric vehicles is not a big problem, every pound of battery capacity added to increase the range of commercial trucks means a pound less of payload, impacting the bottom line. Thus, fuel cells could prove to have a large advantage over electric trucks and be appealing in the commercial world.
While adding larger and heavier batteries to increase the range of personal-use electric vehicles is not a big problem, every pound of battery capacity added to increase the range of commercial trucks means a pound less of payload, impacting the bottom line. Thus, fuel cells could prove to have a large advantage over electric trucks and be appealing in the commercial world.
Supporting this notion is Anheuser-Busch, which has ordered up to 800 Nikola Two hydrogen fuel cell semi-tractor trucks for its operations. Two prototypes are already delivering Budweiser beer. On another front, Hyundai and big-rig producer Cummins may jointly develop and commercialize fuel cell powertrains by combining Hyundai’s fuel cell systems with Cummins’ electric powertrain, battery, and control technologies. Toyota and Kenworth are building 10 fuel cell semi tractors for use in and around the Port of Los Angeles and Port Heuneme, California, where decreasing port-related emissions is a significant challenge.
Where is this all leading? Toward the future, of course…one that continues to evolve with an as-yet unknown mix of conventional, electrified, and alternative fuel vehicles being developed by legacy and newly-launched auto and truck manufacturers. Each has its own vision of what our driving future will look like. Time will tell what role hydrogen will play in this unfolding transportation world.
Hyundai, part of a very exclusive club offering hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the U.S., has followed its initial Tucson FCEV with the all-new Nexo. It’s available only in California where hydrogen fueling opportunities, while limited, exist in greater numbers compared to other states.
The Nexo represents a step forward for FCEVs in that Hyundai is selling the 5-passenger hatchback and not just leasing it, as is typically the case with hydrogen vehicles. It also uses a purpose-built platform rather than being based on an existing model like the Tucson FCEV.
As a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, the Nexo’s fuel cell takes in hydrogen and oxygen to create electricity for powering an electric motor, with zero emissions. The heart of the Nexo is its 95-kW proton-exchange membrane fuel cell stack and 1.6-kWh lithium-ion battery pack. These supply electricity to a 161-horsepower, 291 lb-ft AC induction motor located beneath the hood. Power is transferred to the road through a single-speed, direct-drive gearbox. Hydrogen is stored in three 10,000 psi tanks with a total capacity of 156 liters, delivering an EPA estimated driving range up to 380 miles.
Hyundai reduced the size and weight of the fuel cell compared to that used in the earlier Tucson FCEV. The new fuel cell uses only 56 grams of expensive platinum rather than the Tucson’s 78 grams. Hyundai also improved cold-weather performance so the fuel cell starts in temperatures as low as -22 degrees F. Like the Tucson and other fuel cell vehicles, refueling with hydrogen can be done in as little as five minutes.
There was never a doubt that Honda could achieve its goal in developing a production fuel cell vehicle powered by hydrogen. This automaker already proved it could build and sell another gaseous fuel model – the Civic Natural Gas – that ran as seamlessly as a more conventional gasoline-powered Civic. Hydrogen is just another fuel in gaseous form, right?
Ah, but hydrogen. This zero-emission fuel is more of a challenge since hydrogen wouldn’t be used in an internal combustion Honda engine, but rather in a fuel cell powerplant to electrochemically create electricity, without combustion or emissions. This electricity would provide energy to power electric motors, no differently than in a battery electric vehicle. Make no mistake that this is a very advanced powertrain technology…a future technology, aimed at today.
There have been many developmental milestones along the way. The Honda FCX developmental vehicle we drove at Sears Point Raceway in 2003 offered proof that Honda was up to the challenge. Testing the FCX Clarity Concept at Laguna Seca Raceway in 2006 showed how quickly Honda’s fuel cell vehicle development could progress in a short time.
The all-new 2017 Clarity Fuel Cell is the finished product, currently available in California at a $369 per month lease that includes up to $15,000 of hydrogen fuel. It features an aerodynamic and stylish design nuanced with futuristic touches like angled rear wheel side skirts and eye-catching LED exterior lighting, combined with a pleasing cabin and significant on-board tech.
Clarity Fuel Cell's new fuel cell powertrain is substantially evolved from earlier iterations and offers an impressive 366 mile driving range. Importantly, Clarity Fuel Cell delivers satisfying driving dynamics that made us smile during our recent seat time on twisty roads and highways on California’s Central Coast.
Apparently, the future has arrived.
While hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles represent but a blip on the radar at present, there has been a 300 percent growth in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles sold in 2016, with an unprecedented 2500 FCVs making it to highways. It’s an important development in a field that has been striving to gain traction for some time. In fact, several mainstream automakers look to FCVs as the logical path to mass market vehicle electrification.
“Despite the growth, the number of fuel cell vehicles sold and leased are minuscule compared to the market,” says Naqi Jaffery, president and CEO of Information Trends. “However, the growth portends well for the future of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Information Trends’ report, Global Market for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles 2017, points out that California grew the fastest in terms of sales and leases, but remained behind Japan in terms of volume.
To date, Toyota’s Mirai FCV leads the global market with 2,000 units produced and placed with consumers in 2016. The Hyundai Tucson FCV is a distant second, trailed by Honda Clarity. The Clarity, however, is just getting ramped up with a major commitment by Honda.
As Japan implements its ‘hydrogen society’ efforts and California expands the state’s hydrogen fueling network, Green Car Journal anticipates a continued market growth momentum in the rarified fuel cell electric car segment.
Green Car Journal’s recent drive of Honda’s new Clarity Fuel Cell in Los Angeles delivered what we expect from Honda. Simply, our experience with this sleek and high-tech hydrogen sedan during the Green Car Tour ride-and-drive at GreenBuild 2017 underscored how seamless Honda has made driving a hydrogen powered electric vehicle. Now, others are enjoying the experience as well since the first retail deliveries of Honda’s third-generation Clarity Fuel Cell model have taken place in Southern California. This marks yet another milestone for this automaker as it sets its sights on growing a hydrogen vehicle market.
According to Steve Center, vice-president of American Honda’s Environmental Development Office, this is just the beginning as Honda continues to roll out the new Clarity series of electrified vehicles. Based on an earlier discussion at the LA Auto Show with Honda public relations lead Sage Marie, plus reading between the lines of previous announcements, it’s expected that the present ‘world’ Clarity FCEV will serve as the manufacturing platform for Honda’s electrified lineup including, but not limited to, a plug-in gasoline/electric hybrid, an extended range stand-alone battery EV, and eventually an electrified crossover or SUV offering. While looking at the futuristic body line of this production five-passenger fuel cell electric vehicle, we are in fact also looking at Honda’s near-future autonomous driving design directive.
Dictated by low-drag aerodynamics and inspired by the ‘folded wings of a bird,’ the Clarity brings an eye pleasing and futuristic four-door, five-passenger sedan to the world of hydrogen fueled electric cars and SUVs. Clarity begins with specifically compounded low friction tires, aerodynamic wheels, and slip-stream designed roof and side panels engaged to reduce fuel consumption and maximize the power generated through Clarity’s efficient hydrogen fuel cell generator. With a range of 366 miles between fill ups, the Clarity features greater electric-drive range than Tesla’s Model S.
Thanks to Honda’s downsized yet super-efficient hydrogen fuel cell, Clarity also comes to market with greater interior passenger volume and trunk space than Toyota’s hydrogen Mirai. Here, one discovers a minimalist yet rather spacious world of well-balanced, driver-centered features inspired by the executive office work place. A large touchscreen monitor, informative eye-forward gauge cluster, graph bar, and heads-up display intuitively inform the driver. Pleasing leather, hard and soft plastic molded surfaces, a hint of wood, and brushed metals surround driver and passengers. This may in fact be one of the finest-finished interiors in Honda’s stable.
On the business side, the initial Clarity offering is presently exclusive to Southern California at 12 select Honda dealerships where nearby hydrogen fueling stations are readily available. Among the first lessees are Jon Spallino, private securities investor and the world's first individual fuel cell vehicle customer. Jon began with the 2005 Honda FCX fuel cell vehicle and the new Clarity Fuel Cell is his third hydrogen-powered Honda. Also taking initial delivery were Jack Cusick, assistant principal of Newport Harbor High School; Jackie Keller, founder of NutriFit healthy meal services; Jim Salomon, president at Questar Construction; Karen Thorp, deputy district attorney for the County of Los Angeles; and Terry Tamminen, CEO of the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation.
Clarity may be leased in select markets for $369 per month with $2868 due at signing. Honda provides some enticing incentives including a generous mileage allowance of 20,000 miles per year and a fuel allowance of up to $15,000 in hydrogen fuel. Also provided are an Avis luxury rental car allowance for vacations and other extended trips plus 24/7 roadside assistance.
Many believe hydrogen to have the greatest potential of all alternative fuels, not only for vehicles but as a primary energy source for all aspects of life. Used in fuel cells to electrochemically create electricity for powering a vehicle’s electric motors, hydrogen produces no emissions other than water vapor and heat. There are no CO2 or other greenhouse gases.
While hydrogen is largely extracted from methane today, there are bigger things on the horizon. Hydrogen is a virtually unlimited resource when electrolyzing water using solar- or wind-generated electricity, a process that splits H2O (water) into hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) molecules. Water covers much of the Earth’s surface and is the most abundant compound on the planet.
This has been on the mind of auto manufacturers for years. In fact, editors have experienced many test drives of prototypes and concepts running on hydrogen power for years, like our time behind the wheel of a Mazda MX-5 Miata concept more than two decades ago, along with others from BMW, Ford, GM, Honda, Hyundai, Mercedes-Benz and more.
Along with their own independent hydrogen vehicle development programs, some automakers like GM and Honda are working cooperatively to develop next-generation fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage. Others are working with hydrogen fuel suppliers and state governments to develop an expanded hydrogen fueling network.
In recent years, Honda has been leasing its FCX Clarity fuel cell sedan to limited numbers of consumers in California and Hyundai has recently followed suit with its Tucson Fuel Cell crossover vehicle, also available to limited numbers of consumers in California where hydrogen refueling is more readily available. Both Honda and Toyota have announced plans to introduce next-generation production fuel cell vehicles for consumers shortly.
As with any game-changing technology, hydrogen vehicles come with their challenges. Hydrogen vehicles are presently quite costly to produce, although their cost to consumers who lease them will surely be subsidized by manufacturers until this field matures. The production of ‘green’ hydrogen through electrolysis and other means is also presently limited and costly, plus the nation’s hydrogen refueling infrastructure is extremely sparse, although growing.
The hydrogen vehicle field continues to evolve. A recent study by Sandia National focused on 70 gas stations in California – the state with the largest number of existing hydrogen stations – to determine if any could add hydrogen fueling based on requirements of the 2011 NFPA 2 hydrogen technologies code. The conclusion is that 14 of the 70 stations explored could readily accept hydrogen fuel, with an additional 17 potentially able to integrate hydrogen with property expansions. In this light, expanding the network of hydrogen stations may be more straightforward than previously thought.
Even amid these challenges, with major commitments from automakers like Honda, Toyota, GM, and others in Europe and Asia, hydrogen vehicles are a very real and exciting possibility for the road ahead.
For a decade, Green Car Journal has been recognizing vehicles that significantly raise the bar in environmental performance. With automakers stepping up to offer ever-more efficient and ‘greener’ vehicles in all classes, the magazine’s awards program has naturally expanded to include a greater number of awards for recognizing deserving vehicles.
This prompted the recent suite of Green Car Awards presented during Policy Day at the Washington Auto Show in the nation’s capital – the 2015 Green SUV of the Year™, 2015 Green Car Technology Award™, and 2015 Luxury Green Car of the Year™.
BMW’s gull-wing i8 earned the distinction as the 2015 Luxury Green Car of the Year, outshining competitors Audi A8 L TDI, Cadillac ELR, Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid, and Tesla Model S. Aimed at aspirational buyers who value superb styling and exceptional performance combined with the efficiency of plug-in hybrid drive, the i8 is unique among its peers with an advanced carbon fiber passenger body shell. It also features a lightweight aluminum drive module with a gasoline engine, lithium-ion batteries, and electric motor. The i8 can drive on battery power for 22 miles and up to 310 miles on hybrid power.
The Jeep Grand Cherokee EcoDiesel rose to the top as the magazine’s 2015 Green SUV of the Year, besting finalists Honda CR-V, Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell, Lexus NX 300h, and Mazda CX-5. Offering excellent fuel efficiency for an SUV of its size, the Grand Cherokee EcoDiesel’s 3.0-liter EcoDiesel V-6 offers up to 30 highway mpg and is approved for B20 biodiesel use. An Eco Mode optimizes the 8-speed transmission’s shift schedule, cuts fuel feed while coasting, and directs the air suspension system to lower the vehicle at speed for aerodynamic efficiency.
The Ford F-150 was honored with the 2015 Green Car Technology Award for its milestone use of an all-aluminum body. Competing for the award were advanced powertrains in the BMW i3, BMW i8, Chevrolet Impala Bi-Fuel, Ford F-150, Honda Fit, Kia Soul EV, Tesla Model S, VW e-Golf, and Volvo Drive-E models. The F-150’s aluminum body enables the all-new 2015 pickup model to shed up to 700 pounds for greater efficiency and performance.
While the Green Car Technology Award has a history at the Washington Auto Show, the first-time Green SUV of the Year and Luxury Green Car of the Year awards could not have existed just a short time ago. Simply, SUVs and luxury vehicles were seldom considered ‘green,’ and for good reason. An SUV/crossover’s mission was to provide family transport and recreational capabilities, while aspirational/luxury vehicles were expected to deliver the finest driving experience combined with high-end appointments and exceptional design. Both categories held few environmental champions and ‘green’ was hardly an afterthought.
The evolving nature of ‘green’ cars has brought about a fundamental shift in which environmental performance is now important in SUVs and luxury vehicles. Even so, not all models in these classes are created equal. The challenge has been finding the right balance – the ‘sweet spot’ – that finds SUVs and luxury vehicles delivering the efficiency and environmental qualities desired without sacrificing the conventional touchstones – quality, safety, luxury, value, performance and functionality – that consumers demand. This year’s winners of the 2015 Green Car Awards clearly achieve this balance.
Presenting these important awards at the Washington Auto Show is compelling considering its reputation as the ‘Policy Show,’ a result of the show’s proximity to Capitol Hill and the influence that Washington DC has in driving a more efficient generation of vehicles to market. The 2015 Washington Auto Show has also expanded in recent years, receiving accreditation from the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles (OICA) as one of the five top tier auto shows in America. This year’s Washington Auto Show featured more than 700 vehicles from over 42 domestic and import auto manufacturers, plus a Green Car Awards exhibit showcasing 15 finalist vehicles within the show’s Advanced Technology Superhighway exhibit area.
Today, consumers in California can drive and lease the first wave of commercially available fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in the U.S, and additional models are promised from several leading automakers in the next few months and years.
Of equal importance, today’s FCEV drivers can fill-up at any of nine hydrogen fueling stations in the Los Angeles and San Francisco areas, with 50 stations expected to be operational by the end of 2015.
What does this mean? For the fuel cell and hydrogen industry, and for those who will benefit from FCEVs, the time has come to talk about these vehicles in the present tense. A new game clock is running; the long-envisioned fuel cell future is indeed underway.
Fuel cells generate electricity through a hydrogen-based chemical process, not combustion. The process is silent, with no moving parts, and because there is no combustion there are no tailpipe emissions; the only byproducts are heat and water vapor.
FCEVs can run on hydrogen generated from renewable sources including biogas, wind and solar power, as well as from more traditional fuels like America’s abundant natural gas.
Moreover, as consumers in California are discovering, FCEVs are the only zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) technology that replicates today’s driving experience and convenience with a 300 to 400 miles or greater driving range and rapid fill-up of three to five minutes.
FCEVs SUPPORT ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT, ECONOMIC SECURITY
FCEVs will be part a diverse mix of vehicle types that allow American consumers to fulfill a wide range of driving needs. It only takes a quick look at recent headlines to see why the commercial arrival of FCEVs is so important for America.
With traditional energy-exporting regions of the world in turmoil, America is looking more and more to domestic energy sources. Hydrogen can be produced virtually anywhere in the country from many conventional and renewable energy sources. The nation already produces nine million metric tons of hydrogen annually, enough to fuel 30 to 40 million FCEVs.
Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming also help explain why FCEVs are so important. In 2013, governors of eight states signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) agreeing to put 3.3 million zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) on the road within 12 years. More recently, NESCAUM (the nonprofit association of air quality agencies in the Northeast) developed a plan to begin implementing the ZEV vision defined by the MOU.
Fuel cells and hydrogen energy are the last clean energy technologies in which the U.S. is the global manufacturing leader. Nearly half of all jobs in the industry involve high-skill manufacturing, and when the infrastructure development, sales, and service jobs are added, the job potential is very significant.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Despite recent progress, the path to America’s hydrogen future faces many uncertainties, but most analysts agree the chief concern is how to develop the nation’s crucial hydrogen infrastructure. To help address this issue, in 2013 a public private collaboration, H2USA, was co-launched by the U.S. Department of Energy and industry. H2USA’s mission is to promote the commercial introduction and widespread adoption of FCEVs across America, and its members include state governments, automotive companies, fuel cell and hydrogen energy technology suppliers, energy companies, national laboratories, and trade associations.
Through the combined efforts of its members, H2USA is developing real-world approaches to address the technical, financial, and societal issues surrounding hydrogen infrastructure.
America faces a very bright fuel cell future, but it will take hard work and strong planning to fulfill the FCEV promise. Today FCEVs are no longer at the curb; they have entered the on-ramp and are preparing to merge into the mainstream of American driving.
And I can tell you, the FCEV industry is already thinking about the passing lane.
Morry Markowitz is President & Executive Director of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, www.fchea.org
It may be more straightforward to add hydrogen fueling stations than previously thought. One of the many challenges faced by a developing hydrogen fueling infrastructure is where to site new stations. Thus, the thought: What if hydrogen fueling could be added to existing gas stations at a more affordable cost?
A recent study by Sandia National Laboratories concludes that a number of existing gas stations in California can safely store and dispense hydrogen, illustrating that a broader network of hydrogen fueling stations may be within reach. Seventy gas stations in California – the state with the largest number of existing hydrogen stations – were examined to determine if any could add hydrogen fueling based on the 2011 NFPA 2 hydrogen technologies code published by NFPA (National Fire Protection Association).
The result? It appears that 14 of the 70 stations explored could readily accept hydrogen fuel, with an additional 17 potentially able to integrate hydrogen with property expansions. The code provides fundamental safeguards for the generation, installation, storage, piping, use, and handling of hydrogen in gaseous or cryogenic liquid form. According to Sandia, a key factor in the codes is the separation required for fueling infrastructure, including fuel dispensers, air intakes and tanks, and storage equipment. The code defines required distances between such components and public streets, parking, on-site convenience stores, and perimeter lines around the site.
The study shows that more hydrogen fueling stations can be built if safety issues are examined within a technical framework that focuses on the real behaviors of hydrogen. Under the previous code, which was developed through an expert opinion-based process rather than the risk-informed process developed by Sandia, virtually no hydrogen fuel cell stations could be sited at existing stations. Also, the previous code was developed for flammable gases in an industrial setting, which carries different risks compared to hydrogen fuel at a fueling station.