We’re all aware of the importance of electrification and the significant carbon reduction achieved by zero-emission electric vehicles. This is why so much emphasis is placed on EVs by decision makers responsible for the cars we drive now and those that will be available to us in the future. But it’s important to ask…are they leading us in the right direction?
Increasing evidence says this is not the case, so those decision makers influencing our driving future should know this: If charting the electrified road ahead is based on presumptions and unrealistic expectations, well… you’re playing with fire and likely headed for trouble. We’re seeing that trouble manifest now, in a big way, as the hot electric vehicle market is being consumed by uncertainty.
So, a bit of sage advice. If you’re playing with fire and you find yourself ablaze, the first rule of thumb is to stop, drop, and roll to smother the flames consuming you. In other words, do something proactive to avoid a profoundly bad ending. Yet, metaphorically, the auto industry has largely avoided this exercise in avoiding self-immolation.
A case in point. While going all-in with electrification seemed a strategic move to auto execs in Dearborn, Ford got burned in its electric vehicle shift…badly. After consistently reporting billions of dollars in quarterly losses in its EV operations, Ford is now making a strategic pivot away from its major EV efforts while taking a reported $19.5 billion write-off in the process. The automaker is also ending its groundbreaking F-150 Lightning electric pickup program after the specter of continuing low sales volume hit home, with little expectation this battery electric pickup will ever sell in numbers required to turn a profit.
This is not the only example of an inherently high-profile EV program flaming out due to financial realities. More than a decade ago, in my editorial Facing Up to the Electric Car Challenge, I pointed out a similar outcome for another trailblazing electric vehicle, GM’s circa-1990s EV1: “The EV1 was so costly to build with such massive losses there was no business case for it to continue, and so it ended, as all other electric vehicle programs of the 1990s ended, for the same reason.”
Of course, that didn’t mean the end of electric vehicles. Rather, automakers did some serious reengineering and strategic planning that has brought us the impressive array of all-electric vehicles now available to consumers, with more to come. But the rebirth that saw a new generation of EVs hasn’t changed many of the fundamental challenges the electric vehicle field has historically faced.
Batteries remain expensive and pure EVs are still costly by nature, which in many cases means they are unprofitable. Yet, the push for battery electric vehicles has continued unabated, supported by the belief that consumer demand will grow, production numbers will significantly increase, and in the interim substantial federal, state, and regional subsidies will continue to flow, supporting a wholesale transition from combustion vehicles to ones powered by batteries.
All these assumptions are now being challenged. Other automakers like GM and Volvo are also backing away from their move toward a future of exclusively producing electric vehicles, choosing instead to build diverse electrified and internal combustion models that buyers in large numbers desire and can afford.
To be fair, all this isn’t entirely the auto industry’s fault. Legislators and environmental interests have aggressively pushed a battery electric vehicle agenda for years while ignoring some pretty obvious uncertainties. Inexplicably, they have done so without considering a bigger picture that embraces an array of other rational approaches and technologies that will contribute to the electric vehicle’s ultimate success.
Choosing how to respond to regulations and legislative agendas is an inherently crucial element in a company’s vision and future strategy. The most high-profile failure here has been the decision to go all-in on the electric agenda even in the face of obvious and major uncertainties, not the least of which is any real proof of sustained consumer demand for battery electric vehicles at prices higher than those of conventionally powered models. There is now a growing realization that consumers may well want something different than what legislators, regulators, and automakers have planned.
Generally, the vast number of car buyers want nothing more than to drive comfortable, safe, and efficient vehicles that fit their needs and those of their families at an affordable price. Sure, there are those who will pay a premium to drive pricier or more exclusive vehicles that speak to their sensibilities, image, or sense of self. But most car buyers must balance features and benefits with financial realities, and vehicle cost and monthly payments are almost always an important factor in a new vehicle purchase.
In the absence of significant federal subsidies – which is the case now – electric vehicle acquisition costs are higher and that has clearly changed the dynamics in this market.
With that realization, we’re now seeing a renewed consumer and automaker interest in other more affordable electrified models including hybrids and plug-in hybrids. Hybrids have a proven track record over the past 25 years so greater adoption is a given. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) have long represented the next step on the way to a fully electric vehicle and there will be many more of these coming to new car showrooms.
Then there’s a new twist in the form of extended range electric vehicles (EREVs), essentially more affordable EVs that use smaller battery packs paired with an onboard engine-generator. Reducing battery capacity can significantly lower costs without sacrificing driving range, since the engine-generator produces electricity to recharge the battery and power the vehicle’s drive motors. Automakers see EREVs as a winning strategy and are investing heavily to bring these models into their product lineups.
Of course, there will be many who disagree with any strategy that includes diverse forms of electrification rather than exclusively prioritizing battery electric vehicles. To those who cry “foul,” it’s worth reflecting on what others with a broad view of our transportation future have to say.
Toyota executive vice-president Yoichi Miyazaki frames the carbon challenge this way: “Carbon knows no borders and CO2 reduction is an issue that cannot wait,” adding that “we need to immediately start with what we can do.” In his view, spreading the use of electrified vehicles as quickly as possible and in significant numbers is the imperative, while being “very attentive to the needs of our customers.”
Essentially, that means getting significant numbers of electrified vehicles of all types into the hands of drivers worldwide, in a form that fits their needs. The answer might be a battery electric vehicle in some areas like California with a sizeable public charging network. But for others living in wide-open spaces with a scarcity of public chargers, a better fit might be a hybrid or plug-in hybrid.
Transportation is a huge contributor to carbon emissions and significant change is needed. That said, far too much emphasis has been placed on battery electric vehicles as an urgent and exclusive solution, prompting legislation and regulations with improbable timelines and outcomes.
This needs to be said: In the real world, it’s unrealistic that a wholesale switch to battery electric vehicles would accomplish needed carbon reduction goals on its own, or in a reasonable time frame. Consider that there are some 290 million light-duty vehicles now on our nation’s highways, and they tend to remain on the road about 12 years before being retired. Even if all new car sales were exclusively battery electric vehicles today, it would likely require 25 to 35 years to achieve an entirely battery-powered fleet.
There’s a lot to accomplish with electrification, increased efficiencies, downsizing, and vehicle lightweighting, plus the development of low-carbon, drop-in synthetic fuels for the millions of internal combustion vehicles already on our highways. A more realistic and diverse strategy like this is what’s needed. Imposing unattainable goals with questionable outcomes that force consumers to buy cars they may not want, and nudge automakers toward unnecessary risk, is simply not the answer.
The midsize Polestar 3 SUV, the latest Polestar model to hit U.S. shores, is distinguished with sculpted styling, a minimalist interior, and loads of tech. It also features a good amount of real-world range and, living up to the automaker’s sporty performance goals, great handling and plenty of power.
The rub: The 2025 Polestar 3 starts at almost $69,000 and can edge close to $100,000 in top performance trim with all the available options. It’s not for the multitudes who live on tight budgets.
Likely rivals for shoppers’ attention include electric SUVs from the likes of Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, and Volvo. You could toss in models such as the Cadillac Optiq, Tesla Model Y, and Genesis Electrified GV70, but they really play in a different segment as compact SUVs.
Polestar offers the 3 in three “long range” powertrain choices with option packages to increase the tech, driver assist and comfort, and “gee, look at me” content. The base single-motor, rear-wheel drive version delivers, per the EPA, up to 350 miles of range. None of the competing high-end electric SUVs can match that, although none offer single-motor version, opting instead for 100 percent all-wheel drive lineups.
More powerful but less efficient dual-motor, all-wheel drive versions of the Polestar 3 come in two flavors. The base dual-motor trim boasts a segment-leading 315 miles of range, per the EPA’s rating system. Adding the Performance Pack option drops the Polestar 3 Dual Motor’s rated range to between 279 and 300 miles, depending on tire and wheel size. That’s in the ballpark with the 300-mile Audi Q8 e-tron, 307-mile Mercedes-Benz EQE SUV, 309-mile BMW iX xDrive50, and 310-mile Volvo EX9.
Sizewise, the Polestar 3 sits near the bottom of it pack. While its passenger cabin is roomy, the 3 overall is as much as 5.5 inches shorter than other premium and luxury mid-size electric SUVs. It sits mid-pack in cargo capacity, though, bested by the BMW iX and Audi but leading the EQE SUV and the Volvo EX90. Pricewise, the Polestar starts lower than any likely competitor.
The Swedish EV maker started life as an independent tuning shop for Volvo racers, then was absorbed by Volvo Cars, which has been owned by China’s Zhejiang Geely Holding Group since 2010. In 2017 Geely decided it wanted a stand-along EV makers in its stable to market performance-oriented but premium-level vehicles globally. Polestar was spun off from Volvo to be that company.
It is publicly traded, but a majority of its shares are held by Geely and Geely founder and CEO Li Shufu’s private PSD Investment. Volvo Cars also holds a stake.
Polestar’s first model, the limited production Polestar 1, was a sport coupe with a 600 horsepower plug-in hybrid powertrain and 52 mile all-electric range, the best in the business. It was sold globally, though in very small numbers, from 2019 through 2021 and won praise for its styling and performance. Only about 1,500 of the $150,000 cars were built and just 250 of them made it to the U.S.
The Polestar 2, a compact sedan-styled hatchback, launched in 2019 and still is sold in Asia and Europe. U.S. sales of the sporty 2 were curtailed this year in the face of stiff tariffs on vehicles imported from China, where it is built.
Polestar 3 went on sale in the U.S. earlier this year in dual-motor trim, with the single-motor version launching in April. Models sold in the U.S. are built alongside the Volvo EX90 at Volvo’s South Carolina assembly plant. The 3 will be followed later this year by the Polestar 4, a tall sedan styled midsize SUV that shares most of its powertrain, suspension, and interior with the 3. It will be built in South Korea.
A Polestar 5 sport sedan – the brand’s new flagship model – is slated for 2026 and will be built in South Carolina and/or South Korea. The Polestar 7 compact SUV aimed mainly for the European market and slated to be assembled there is scheduled next, to be followed by the Polestar 6, a 2+2 performance roadster with head-turning design.
Don’t expect to consistently get EPA estimated range from any Polestar 3 variant unless your accelerator foot is feather light, your driving style rather timid, and you avoid hilly or mountainous terrain and highway driving. Real-world range for most EVs runs 10 to 15 percent below EPA estimates with the variance depending largely on tire size, the weight of cargo (including people) on board, driving style, terrain, and the amount of high speed driving involved. We tested both the single-motor and dual-motor performance versions of the Polestar 3. Our experience is that it manages to stick pretty close to the estimates, running 10 to 12 percent short in most driving conditions.
In in our range test of a single-motor Polestar 3 with 21-inch wheels – the variant EPA rates at 350 miles – our 250-mile round-trip ride covered 140 miles of fast freeway driving in light traffic, plus 70 miles of ambling country lanes and 40 miles of mountain roads. We tried to keep within 10 mph of posted speed limits.
Per EPA’s estimate, we should have been draining the battery pack at a rate of 3.27 miles per kilowatt-hour (350 miles/107 kWh usable battery capacity). But country and mountain driving on the first leg of the trip was uphill most of the way, cutting efficiency to just 2.4 miles per kWh. That would have resulted in just under 266 miles of range had we kept going at that pace. We benefitted from an equal amount of downhill motoring on the way back, though, and improved efficiency for that part was a relatively thrifty 3 miles per kWh. For the entire round trip, average consumption was 37.3 kWh per 100 miles. That’s the equivalent of 307 miles of range – 12.2% under the EPA estimate.
We tested the dual-motor performance version of the Polestar 3 last fall on rain-slicked roads in the area around Jackson, Wyoming. An abundance of caution with someone else’s vehicle kept speeds down, but we did climb about 2,200 feet from Jackson’s 6,240-foot elevation to hit the pass through the Tetons into neighboring Idaho. Overall, we found real range on that trip was pretty much what EPA estimated for the performance version with 22 inch tires.
All versions of the 2025 Polestar 3 are two-row, five-seat electric crossovers. There’s a lot of Volvo under the skin and in the interior, but Polestar DNA is dominant in the 3’s design and chassis, suspension, and powertrain development.
Its aerodynamic looks derive from the Polestar Precept electric sedan concept that was unveiled in 2020. It’s built on an EV-specific platform developed by Volvo.
The rear-drive Polestar 3 starts at $68,900 under pre-tariff pricing. It has its own powertrain and suspension but otherwise is almost identical in looks and features to the dual-motor trims.
Standard features include 20-inch alloy wheels, panoramic glass roof, acoustic laminated windshield and rear window, auto-extending flush door handles, power rear liftgate with foot sensor, power adjustable and heated, auto-dimming, and folding frameless side mirrors. Inside are standard heated and power adjustable front seats with extendable thigh bolsters, ambient interior lighting, tri-zone heat-pump climate control, rear touchscreen for climate and seat heating controls, and a 10-speaker audio system.
If your regular driving conditions don’t require all wheel drive and you don’t mind taking a couple of seconds longer to hit 60 from a standing stop, the single-motor version makes a lot of sense.
The dual-motor Polestar 3 starts at $74,800. It includes all the single-motor variant’s standard features and adds more power, electronic all-wheel drive with torque vectoring, and air suspension with active dampers. The dual motor AWD with Performance Pack jumps to $80,800 and includes everything on the standard dual motor but adds a performance software upgrade that boosts horsepower and torque. It also gets 22-inch alloys with performance tires, special chassis tuning, and gold-color seatbelts, valve caps, and brake calipers.
The Plus Pack, priced at $5,500, adds a head-up display, power adjustable steering column, soft-close door mechanism, heated rear seats and steering wheel, heated windshield wiper blades, and a foldable rear cargo bay floor. Also provided is a 25-speaker Bowers & Wilkins audio system with surround sound, Dolby Atmos capability, and active road noise cancellation.
Available only with the Plus Pack at an additional $5,500 is a combination of animal welfare certified Nappa leather upholstery in three color choices and dark ash wood trim. The Performance Pack, at $6,000 and available only for the dual-motor variant, adds 22-inch alloy and performance tires, a software upgrade that boosts horsepower and torque, sport and performance tuned chassis, and gold-colored seatbelts, brake calipers, and valve caps. A $2,100 Pro Pack option for the single-motor and base dual-motor variants adds specially designed 21-inch wheels, gold-colored valve caps, and black seatbelts with a gold center stripe.
All Polestar 3 variants use a 111-kilowatt-hour battery pack (107 kWh usable capacity) installed under the floor in a so-called skateboard EV platform. For the single-motor version, the battery supplies a rear-mounted motor rated at 299 horsepower and 361 lb.-ft. of torque. Dual-motor variants get an additional motor for the front axle. Combined, they produce a total of 489 horsepower and 620 lb-ft torque. The Performance Pack boosts that to 517 hp and 671 lb-ft.
Polstar says the standard dual-motor version can zoom from zero to 60 mpg in 4.9 seconds. Adding the Performance Pack cuts that to 4.6 seconds – at a cost of $2,000 per tenth of a second. The single motor Polestar 3 get to 60 in a more leisurely but perfectly acceptable 7.5 seconds, per Polestar’s estimate.
In any configuration there’s a decent amount of power, which is good because the Long-Range Dual Motor Polestar 3 weighs in at more than 2.5 tons in its lightest configuration, and is just 120 pounds short of 3 tons at its heftiest. The single motor version is some 200 pounds lighter than the base dual-motor Polestar 3.
The single motor version gets steel coil springs, passive dampers, and a rear motor without torque vectoring. Steering calibration is also a little softer in the single motor model. In our test drive we found it to deliver a comfortable ride and compliant handling, but its suspension couldn’t compensate for rough roads and high-speed corners quite as well as the dual moor variants’ more sophisticated system.
Dual motor Polestar 3s get adaptive air suspension and a rear-biased, electronic all-wheel drive system with torque vectoring that lets the Polestar 3 put its power to the road quite effectively and sure-footedly. All versions get four-piston Brembo front brakes with single-piston Brembos in the rears and they handle the vehicle’s weight with aplomb. A one-pedal drive setting for the Polestar 3’s multi-stage regenerative braking reduces brake-foot fatigue in crowded traffic and can mimic a downshift when turning or carving up a twisty country road.
We didn’t find either version of the Polestar 3 to be unwieldly or unbalanced when tossed around mountain corners or while carving winding roads, but our preference was for the double-motor variants’ air springs and adaptive dampers.
The single motor Polestar 3 with optional 21-inch wheels and all-season tires is EPA-rated at up to 350 miles of range, dropping to 342 miles with the standard 20-inch tires and 333 miles with 22-inchers. Dual-motor versions are rated at 315 miles with 21-inch wheels, 310 miles with the standard 20-inch wheels, and 287 miles with 22-inch wheels.
Adding the performance pack gets up to 300 miles of range. The Performance pack with its standard 22-inch alloys and sticky performance tires drops the estimated range to 279 miles. While the smaller 20-inch tires should deliver less rolling resistance and thus more range than the 21-inchers, the 20-inch wheels are made of cast aluminum, which makes them heavier and thus slightly less energy efficient than the forged aluminum wheels used with the 21 inch rubber.
At a DC fast charger, the Polestar can replenish its battery pack at up to 250 kilowatts per hour, good for a 10 to 80 percent recharge in 30 minutes. For home charging, the Polestar, like its competitors, uses an 11 kW Level 2 charging system. With properly sized 240-volt equipment, the Polestar can take a battery from 10 to 100 percent in 11 hours. Both DC and Level 2 charging speeds are competitive in the segment.
Polestar 3 has a Scandinavian minimalist interior that would have been avant-garde had it been rolled out a few years ago, before the Hyundai Motor Group set the standard for modern minimalism with its Hyundai and Kia small crossover interiors.
In the Polestar 3, the dashboard is divided into a padded textile-covered upper section with a textured plastic or optional aluminum or wood-trimmed lower face, divided by a thin strip of LED lighting. The dash houses a 9-inch-wide digital driver information screen and a centrally mounted, vertically oriented 14.5-inch infotainment touchscreen that also serves as a control center for almost all vehicle settings and functions. The only physical switches and knobs are vehicle function and driver display control buttons – unlabeled - on the steering wheel, the shifter, and turn signal stalks on the steering column. A rotary controller for the audio system is located on the center console’s floating bridge.
Power-adjustable, sports-styled front bucket seats are set low to maximize headroom and are both supportive and comfortable. The 60/40 split rear seat sits higher than the front seats for improved lines of sight for rear occupants. The bench is divided into three molded seating positions, and while the middle position is narrow, there’s decent rear legroom even for center-seat occupants since below-floor batteries allow a flat floor with decent legroom.
The Polestar 3 has a small-for-the-segment primary cargo bay providing 17.1 cubic feet behinds the rear seats, which we’re told allows carrying along about 15 grocery bags or five airline carry-ons. In contrast, the BMW iX features more than twice the Polestar’s capacity at 35.5 cubic feet with the Mercedes-Benz EQE SUV offering 20 cubic feet. Things improve when the Polestar 3’s rear seat back is folded down as this boosts total interior cargo capacity to 49.8 cubic feet. That’s still the least of the competitive set, though, with the iX boasting 77.9 cubes of maximum interior cargo space that takes the lead.
There’s also a 1.1 cu.-ft. storage area, or “frunk,” under the hood. It’s not large enough to be of much use but will hold a portable charging cord that otherwise would take up open cargo space in the rear. Among likely competitors, the Audi Q8 e-tron has a 2.1-cu.-ft. frunk while the BMW iX and Mercedes EQE SUV do without.
Polestar says the “3” can haul up to 220 pounds on its roof and dual-motor versions can tow up to 3,500 pounds. That tow rating is adequate for a small utility trailer but comes in less than the 5,500 pound rating of the BMW iX or the 4,000 pound rating of the Audi Q8. The Mercedes isn’t tow-rated in the U.S. The single-moor Polestar 3 is rated to tow up to 2,000 pounds.
Polestar uses an Android Automotive operating system for its infotainment centers. We’ve found it to be one of the most user-friendly interfaces around, especially for those who prefer to use voice commands, which are executed in everyday language after a “Hey Google” wakeup call. The built-in Google Play Store makes downloading new apps to the system easy. There’s 5G connectivity available, along with Google Maps with a 3-year constant internet connectivity plan at no charge.
Connectivity is enhanced with four USB-C ports – two for each seating row – and a 120-volt outlet in the rear cargo bay. Wireless phone and Bluetooth phone connectivity are standard as are Android Auto and Apple CarPlay compatibility. If there’s a drawback to the infotainment setup it’s that it is also control central for almost all vehicle adjustments and functions. This requires drivers who like to adjust drive modes, cabin temperature, and the like while underway to shift their eyes from road to screen far too often.
Audio is handled with a 10-speaker system. A 25-speaker Bowers & Wilkins sound system with Dolby Atmos surround sound and headrest speakers is an option. Three external speakers broadcast a warning tone at low speeds so that pedestrians, cyclists, and others can hear the otherwise silent EV as its draws near.
As a new model on a new platform, the Polestar 3 hasn’t yet been crash-tested by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) or the nonprofit Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). It has received a 5-star safety rating in the European NCAP crash test program.
Polestar 3 is equipped with an impressive array of advanced safety and driver assistance technologies, all integrated via a centralized computer running on software developed by Volvo Cars. The driver assistance and safety systems use a variety of imaging systems to monitor external surroundings and conditions, monitor driver alertness, and even report in-car movement to help prevent accidentally leaving pets or children in a parked car.
Standard safety and driver assist features on the 2025 Polestar 3 include front collision avoidance and mitigation with braking and steering assist, pedestrian and cyclist detection, blind spot and rear cross traffic alert, rear collision mitigation, and driver alertness monitoring. Adaptive cruise control featuring full stop-and-go functionality along with lane keeping and centering with lane departure warning are also standard fare.
The Polestar 3 stands out for its unfussy good looks, user-friendly operating interface, and sporty ride, though its cargo bay isn’t as useful as some because of the rearward sloping roofline.
We certainly hope Polestar’s challenges don’t prove fatal. It has lost money every year since it was spun off from Volvo, had to delay production of the 3 for almost a year because of software issues, and hasn’t yet managed to achieve widespread name recognition in the U.S. Still, its vehicles are world-class EVs and the Polestar 3 belongs on any premium performance SUV shopper’s must-test list.
In the early 1990s, California’s coming zero-emission vehicle mandate drove major automakers to dive into battery electric vehicle development. The challenge was daunting and presented substantial obstacles including high costs and limited range. Then along came Volvo’s Environmental Concept Car. This innovative turbine-hybrid didn’t meet the letter of the law since it wasn’t fully zero emission, but it did illustrate there are diverse answers to environmental goals. This lesson lives on with today’s array of electrified vehicles. This report, presented as it originally appeared in Green Car Journal’s February 1993 issue, shares details on how Volvo proposed to bring hybrids to the highway.
Excerpted from February 1993 Issue: It’s interesting to note the diverse ways the world’s automakers are responding to California’s ‘zero-emission’ vehicle mandate that takes effect in just five short years. By most accounts, the majority are involved in intense research and development of battery-powered electric cars that will meet the letter of the law.
Volvo, on the other hand, has a different view. This Swedish automaker, which built a stunning serial hybrid EV called the Volvo Environmental Concept Car, seeks a revision in the California legislative model that would specifically allow electric hybrids under the ZEV category. While this seems to make sense in some ways, it is also highly problematic in others. Some would argue that hybrids could present a regulatory nightmare since it would be difficult, if not impossible, to monitor whether drivers were actually running on straight electric or hybrid power in future urban zero-emission zones.
“Our goal, of course, was to meet the zero emitting vehicle standard that California has set,” says Sylvia Voegele, general manager of Volvo’s Monitoring and Concept Center in Camarillo, Calif. “As we studied what consumers want, wish versus reality…we discovered that there were some fabulous pros for the electric car, but there was also a long list of negatives. Since we had to come up with a family vehicle which seats four people-plus, naturally we had a range problem. So our solution could not be with the given technology of today – the straight electric car – which appears to be the only solution to deliver a zero emission vehicle. So we settled for a hybrid.
“We felt that this hybrid solution gave us the best of both worlds,” continues Voegele. “It could be a zero-emitting vehicle for inner city driving or for shorter trips. Plus it could be, with a far better extender range, the vehicle you could drive to Las Vegas if you wish.” The ECC’s short 55 mile all-electric range is admittedly limiting, but may meet the requirements of those commuting average distances to the workplace. In this configuration the ECC does meet the strict ZEV standard.
The benefit of Volvo’s hybrid approach is realized whenever lengthier drives are required. Using the ECC’s small gas turbine/generator to power the car’s 76 horsepower (56 kW) electric motor provides a range greater than 400 miles, and at emission levels that meet California’s ultra-low emission vehicle (ULEV) standard. Running on turbine-generated electrical power also provides 0-60 mph acceleration of about 13 seconds, much quicker than the ECC’s 23-second 0-60 mph acceleration times on battery power alone. Again, the slower acceleration would seem to be in a range acceptable within more crowded urban areas, while quicker turbine/generator-inspired sprints seem more in tune with the needs of open-road touring.
“The zero emitting vehicle to us is somewhat artificial because you still have emissions at the powerplants,” says Stephen Wallman, director of Complete Vehicle Product and Process at Volvo Car Corp. “Especially when you introduce global thinking, it doesn’t really matter too much if the powerplant is a little outside Los Angeles or in Los Angeles.”
Still, why would Volvo pursue development of a proof-of-concept vehicle that may not qualify to fulfill what could be a huge niche market for ZEVs? “One way of looking at it is that it’s driven by customer demand,” says Wallman of the ECC. “It is one way of overcoming the shortfalls of straight electric vehicles. It has the possibility, with a super-clean heat engine and very efficient energy conversion to electric power, to give very low emissions and good fuel economy levels. It still depends on battery technology, but to a much lesser extent. In our view this makes hybrid propulsion the most realistic alternative in the middle range.”
It remains to be seen how well a production vehicle like the Volvo ECC could weather the zero-emission regulatory climate already in place in California, New York, Massachusetts, and coming soon to other states. With many R&D efforts developing serial hybrid EVs, and the U.S. Department of Energy embarking on a funding program for their development, it seems at least plausible that hybrids may have a place in our future. What that place may be, and to what extent they’ll be used in a zero-emission strategy, is an interesting question that’s yet to be answered.
The 2021 all-electric Polestar 2 arrives in North America this year as the brand’s first pure electric vehicle, aiming to take on Tesla in a market that’s seeing increased interest in EVs. Produced in China through a collaboration of Volvo and Geely Motors, this 5-door midsize electric hatchback proudly forwards the Polestar nameplate that was formerly dedicated to Volvo’s performance arm. Now, Polestar represents the maker’s global electric car initiative as a stand-alone car brand.
At first glance, there’s no mistaking the Volvo pedigree of Polestar 2 as it embraces the design language of Volvo’s XC40. Manufactured on Volvo’s CMA (compact modular architecture) platform, it presents premium fit and finish seamlessly blended with the utmost in functionality. This eye-catching model gets high marks for attention to detail, clean lines, and an unapologetically conventional front facade and grille design that fits its persona, without giving way to the whims of those who seem convinced an electric must look decidedly different.
No performance is lost here in the transition to zero-emissions electric power. Polestar 2 is motivated by dual electric motors, one at each axle, producing a combined 408 horsepower and 487 ft-lb torque in the Performance Pack all-wheel drive variant. This delivers a claimed 0 to 60 sprint in just 4.5 seconds.
A 292 mile range is estimated on the electric’s 78 kWh LG Chem lithium-ion battery pack, which is said to be 10 percent more powerful than Audi and Jaguar offerings. Polestar integrates the battery module as a crash-protected unibody stress member, improving overall road handling characteristics through strategic weight distribution. There are multiple charging options with integrated dual inverters and AC/DC at-home and network charge capability. Charging to 80 percent capacity can be had in 45 minutes at a fast-charge station.
Polestar 2’s regenerative braking enables one-pedal driving, a feature pioneered by the BMW i3 some years back and now adopted in an increasing number of electric models. In effect, strong regenerative braking slows a vehicle down sufficiently to often allow coming to a gradual stop without using the brakes, a fun feature that enhances the joy of driving. Although not fully autonomous, Polestar 2 comes standard with the automaker’s Polestar Connect, Pilot Assist, and adaptive cruise control for Level 2 partial automation.
Inside, driver and passengers enjoy a more conventional cockpit and cabin environment than that presented by some competitors. Polestar 2 is minimalistic but also business class posh in its interior design, placing emphasis on low environmental impact manufacturing practices and materials like repurposed Birch and Black Ash wood accents, plus soft touch ‘vegan’ synthetic seat fabrics.
Heated and cooled seats, inductive cellphone charging, ample points for device connectivity, and a standard panoramic digitized sunroof are provided. Information is intelligently presented in the instrument cluster and a large center stack navigation/infotainment touchpad. A familiar center console select shift is used. Easy access to an ample cargo deck is afforded by a power lift rear hatch, with additional room provided by a fold-down second row seat.
The price of entry for Polestar 2 is $59,900 before federal or state incentives, with the model offered in three trim groups, five color combinations, and four add-on price upticks. It’s currently available for order in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York. Buyers will discover a no-salesman showcase approach with a take-your-time-and-look buying and lease environment. As the market reacts, Volvo intends to make Polestar 2 available in all 50 states.
Sharing drive components and integrated technology with Volvo’s XC90 T8, the latest rendition of the Swedish maker’s best-selling vehicle comes to market more powerful and smarter than ever. Volvo’s upscale 2018 XC60 T8 PHEV (plug-in-hybrid) presents a premium and rugged, yet refined, SUV where high performance meets advanced technology and comfort. It is the most powerful two-row SUV in Volvo history. The editors at Green Car Journal take a closer look.
Volvo Rightfully Calls 2018 XC60 T8 the Most Powerful Two-Row SUV on the Market
How it works: Volvo’s XC60 T8 successfully follows in the footsteps of its larger XC90 T8 crossover sibling. Both upscale plug-in hybrids use a 313 horsepower, supercharged and turbocharged 2.0-liter four-cylinder engine with an eight-speed automatic transaxle and two permanent-magnet AC motors.
In this through-the-road AWD hybrid system, a 46-horsepower electric motor drives the front wheels while an 87 horsepower AC motor powers the rear wheels. This results in total system output of 400 horsepower and 472 lb-ft torque. There is no mechanical connection between the two axles.
2018 Volvo XC60 T8 Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Enables Extended Electric-Only Drive Range
A lithium-ion battery pack is positioned in the center tunnel where a driveshaft would normally be located. This 10.4 kWh pack enables the 2018 Volvo XC60 T8 to travel about 18 miles on electricity alone. Total driving range on gas and electric power is 370 miles. The battery can be recharged in as little as three hours from a 240-volt source and six hours from a standard 120-volt outlet.
Regenerative braking, stop/start capability, and a Pure EV electric-only mode contribute to a 59 MPGe rating, quite good for a vehicle with a nearly 4,600-pound curb weight. The twin electric motors and 472 lb-ft torque bring impressive acceleration for a SUV that can carry five people, propelling the vehicle from 0 to 60 mph in 4.9 seconds.
The Re-Engineered 2018 Volvo XC60 Offers State-of-the-Art Active Safety and Driver Assist
Momentum, R-Design, and Inscription versions of the XC60 T8 are available, offering similar standard and optional equipment to non-hybrid T6 models. Optional driver assistance packages are available including a Vision package that includes blind-spot and cross-traffic alerts, automatic mirror dimming, power-retractable outside mirrors, and a parking-assist function.
The XC60’s Convenience package includes adaptive cruise control with Volvo's semi-autonomous Pilot Assist, a Level 2 partial-automation system that assists with driving tasks like remaining in a lane and matching traffic speed on the highway, while still relying on a driver as the primary monitor of the driving environment. Optional Steer Assist, which is linked with Volvo’s Blind Spot Information System and Oncoming Lane Mitigation, helps the driver steer around an obstacle if a collision is likely.
Volvo Takes 2018 XC60 to a Higher Level in Personal Electronic Connectivity
A 9.3-inch Sensus Connect screen in the dashboard center stack offers tablet-like swipe-and-pinch gestures. It’s large enough that it can be divided into four independent sections to provide quick and easy access to any controls needed. Sensus Connect provides 4G/LTE connectivity and offers its own suite of apps including Pandora, Spotify, Glympse, Local Search, Yelp, Weather, and Wiki Locations. The main Sensus screen interacts with 8-inch or 12.3-inch driver information displays and the optional head-up display showing navigation, infotainment, and basic information.\
Volvo’s XC60 T8 is offered at a base price of $52,900, about 10 grand more than its conventionally-powered sibling. It’s an exceptional compact crossover providing the luxury appointments and advanced technology we’ve come to expect from Volvo. It’s also a compelling option for new car buyers looking for an upscale crossover experience with the efficiency of plug-in hybrid power.
Automakers have been in a frenzy of late to claim a leadership position with electrification. Volvo has now taken a significant step in that direction by announcing its intention to include an electric motor in all of its models launched after 2019.
That doesn’t signify an exclusive leap toward battery electric cars, even though Volvo does plan to launch five all-electric vehicles between 2019 and 2021. Electrification can take many forms including hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and electric-assist systems, plus of course cars that run exclusively on batteries. There will be a mix in the Volvo lineup depending on a model’s propulsion needs and market demands.
This move is not a surprise. Volvo announced three years ago that it was replacing the five- and six-cylinder engines that had been powering its models with a new and more efficient Drive-E four-cylinder. This engine architecture was designed from the beginning to include a start-stop motor and regenerative braking, plus ready integration with hybrid and plug-in hybrid technology.
The first use of Drive-E engines in the U.S. was in select 2015 Volvo models. Since Volvo’s plan all along was to transition its models to Drive-E power and this engine was designed for electrification, using electrically-augmented Drive-E engines – or in some cases battery electric drivetrains – in all new models after 2019 represents the next stage of this transition.
Volvo has marked the 90th anniversary of its first car rolling off its assembly line in Gothenburg, Sweden with the production of the first 2018 XC60 two-row compact SUV, available in T8 plug-in hybrid performance trim. The first generation XC60 – with well over a million units sold in its initial nine-year production run – is the best-selling premium SUV in Europe and represents 30 percent of Volvo’s global volume. Volvo is aiming to continue this model's success with the all-new, second generation XC60.
“Volvo is very proud of its history,” says Håkan Samuelsson, chief executive of Volvo Cars. “The past 90 years have been exciting, but the 10 years left until the 100 year anniversary may come to be more exciting as industry focus shifts to autonomous driving, electrification, and connectivity. The new XC60 is in many ways the embodiment of these trends.”
Green Car Journal has long recognized Volvo car as a leader in passive and active safety innovations, hybrid gasoline-electric technology, low environmental impact, and most recently advanced autonomous driving technology. Volvo’s flagship XC90 T8 sport hybrid SUV earned the magazine’s 2016 Luxury Green Car of the Year award.
We live in a day and age when many consumers look to their car not only as a safe form of everyday conveyance, but also as a personal retreat or perhaps an extension of one’s office…with perhaps a dash of dynamic drive performance thrown in for good measure. Our recent drive experience with Volvo’s 2017 S90 T6 along Spain's Costa del Sol illustrated that this sedan answers all such anticipations with a spot-on drop of Thor's Hammer.
What Volvo has accomplished with the all-new S90 over a relatively short development timeline is nothing short of astounding. Simply, the Volvo S90 T6 delivers as promised with a comfortable, safe, quiet, and near-luxury driving experience. It follows the well-received XC90 in Volvo’s total reinvention of its model lineup. For 2017, Volvo takes its second-generation Drive-E engine technology and performance to the next level, with the S90 powered by a very advanced, high output, supercharged and turbocharged four-cylinder gasoline engine that’s both fuel efficient and near zero emissions.
While most luxury sport sedan buyers seek turbocharged mid- to high-displacement V-6 through V-12 twin cam torque monsters to inject their adrenaline rush, Volvo sees things differently. This automaker envisions a future with turbocharged three- and four-cylinder gasoline engines fulfilling primary drive duties, cogeneration, and plug-in electrification in the near future. And Volvo engineering sees this no later than model year 2018. In fact, international S90 project lead Peter Martens tells Green Car Journal that cylinder count is inconsequential in today’s engine technology. In Peter’s words, “it’s the engine's horsepower and torque output that matters at the end of the day.”
But are four cylinders enough? As my co-driver commented during our test drive: “One would have to look under the hood of the S90 T6 to discover the four-cylinder.” Simply, this efficient engine is a source of exceptional power and satisfying performance. In all truth, the S90’s direct-injected, twin-cam aluminum 2.0-liter engine produces seamless torque. Notably, its use of both supercharging and turbocharging means there’s absolutely no turbo lag up to red line. An eight-speed automatic transmission contributes to the sedan’s overall fuel efficiency.
Producing 316 horsepower and 295 lb-ft torque in the midrange, Volvo’s S90 T6 AWD achieves a respectable 0-to-60 mph sprint time of just 5.7 seconds, quick enough for the majority of drivers in the midsize luxury sedan segment. This efficient powerplant delivers an EPA estimated 22 mpg in city driving and 31 mpg on the highway.
A front-wheel drive T5 variant with a turbocharged rendition of the same mill produces a respectable 250 horsepower/258 lb-ft torque at 2200 rpm. This rivals the specs of many six-cylinder engines on the market today while achieving a desirable 23 city/34 highway mpg. Volvo expects market demand for the T5 and T6 variants will run about 50/50.
While we found the S90 T6 AWD model quite capable during aggressive driving on two-lane country roads, where this sedan truly shines is in long-range highway driving. It’s a luxury midsize rolling lounge with near-sports sedan handling attributes. Surprisingly, we found Volvo’s therapeutic seat requiring no break-in time. Our S90 came with driver and front passenger seating cooled, heated, and equipped with a massage option, arguably the best in the class. Leg, shoulder, and headroom is exceptional front and rear, as is this model’s premium-class fit and finish.
The S90 presents ride quality rivaling that of the best luxury commuters in the industry, thanks in no small part to Volvo’s optionally available rear air suspension, superior hydraulic dampening, and active electronic noise cancellation. It does this well while facilitating a split personality with the kind of sport-like-driving capability required by today’s all-inclusive consumer mindset.
Attention to the road is enhanced by a well-positioned heads-up display, where speed, engine temperature, and more can be monitored without requiring a glance at the instrument panel. The S90’s drive environment is well balanced, leather covered, wood-accented, and high-tech rich, yet intuitive in its operation. Everything is in its place and enveloped in high-end Swedish style and sensible accommodation.
Volvo runs a bit ahead of the trend with perhaps the best-working active safety suite available in the segment today. As demonstrated through its S90, Volvo continues the company’s historical emphasis on driver and passenger safety by providing its notable active safety features on all S90 trim levels.
The S90’s City Safety feature includes frontal collision avoidance, low-and high-speed collision mitigation, and auto brake engagement, plus pedestrian, cyclist, and large animal recognition. Run Off Road Mitigation senses if the vehicle is about to unintentionally leave the pavement and takes corrective action. With Pilot Assist, the S90 will assist in driving up to 80 mph, but the driver’s hand is required to stay on the wheel in 15 second intervals to ensure driver attention. Yes, we did test this and it worked flawlessly with near dead-center lane keep assist and adaptive cruise control that maintained distance from the car ahead.
First to market in the States is the S90 T6 AWD, followed by the front-drive S90 T5. Later we’ll see the V90 Estate Wagon and the S90 T8 plug-in hybrid. The price of entry for the S90 T5 is $46,950 with the T6 coming in at a base of $52,950. Volvo’s Inscription trim level adds $3,300 to the cost of each. Whichever you choose, the Volvo S90 may well be the bargain of the midsize luxury sedan segment.
Volvo's XC90 T8 SUV – Green Car Journal’s 2016 Luxury Green Car of the Year™ – emerged a completely redesigned model in the 2016 model year, the first time the enduring XC90 has had a complete makeover since 2002. It rose to the top to claim the award at the 2016 Washington Auto Show over finalists that included the BMW X5 xDrive40e, Lexus RX 450h, Mercedes-Benz C350e, and Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid.
Even though immediately recognized as a Volvo, virtually nothing carried over from the previous generation save for some mechanicals. The T8 ‘twin engine’ XC90, the more efficient sibling to Volvo’s conventionally powered XC90 T6, is a plug-in hybrid that uses Volvo's efficient 316 horsepower, 2.0-liter supercharged and turbocharged Drive-E four-cylinder engine. This engine powers the front wheels through an eight-speed automatic transmission.
A 46 horsepower starter-generator motor located between the engine and transmission provides start-stop capability to enhance efficiency. This motor also enables regenerative braking and can provide additional power to the transmission when maximum performance is required. An 82 horsepower electric motor drives the rear wheels. The battery and both electric motors are liquid-cooled. Battery coolant can also be refrigerated under very hot conditions. Volvo’s new XC90 design locates the lithium-ion battery in the tunnel between the front passenger seats, not beneath the trunk as is the case with many PHEVs. Thus, cargo capacity in this seven passenger plug-in SUV is no less than the conventionally powered T6 that has no batteries.
The T8 has several drive modes. Hybrid is the default and uses power from the gas engine and electric motor as needed for optimum efficiency. Pure mode offers all-electric driving, with the AWD mode driving all four wheels on demand. Save mode conserves battery power for later use. In Power Mode, maximum electric torque is provided from start for great acceleration at low speeds with the Drive-E engine taking over at higher speed.
Drivers have the ability to motor exclusively on battery power up to 13 miles according to official EPA estimates with a total gas-electric range of 350 miles. EPA also rates the T8 at 53 MPGe (mile-per-gallon equivalent) on battery power with a combined city/highway fuel economy rating of 25 mpg during hybrid operation.
The 2016 XC90 is longer, wider, and taller than the previous XC90. It uses Volvo' s Scalable Product Architecture platform that is destined for most future Volvo models. The XC90 T8 comes in base Momentum, more luxurious Inscription, and sportier R-Design trim levels. All include a two-panel panoramic sunroof, leather upholstery, heated front seats, and third-row seating as standard equipment. The illuminated shift lever is genuine Orrefors crystal, probably the first time any automaker has used real crystal glass in a production car.
A Sensus Connect infotainment system brings tablet-like features and convenience to the dashboard of this Volvo model. This system is said to have more processing power than any iPad with incredibly quick response. The touchscreen uses infrared lasers rather than capacitive touch sensors so the smart, intuitive interface can be used while wearing gloves, or even with a pencil or other object.
Volvo’s entire suite of standard safety systems are included plus advanced driver assist items like Lane Departure Warning, Road Sign Information display, Pedestrian and Cyclist Detection, Pilot Assist adaptive cruise control, and Park Assist Pilot automatic parallel and perpendicular parking. World firsts include Auto Braking at Intersections if another vehicle comes into its path from oncoming or side traffic, and should the car swerve off the road its Run Off Road Design pre-tensions seat belts and crushable supports in the front seats absorb crash forces. Safety is, after all, one of this marque’s longstanding core values and the XC90 addresses this in a big way.
We are heading toward self-driving cars quicker than anyone could have imagined just a few years ago. While it will clearly be some time before our highways are packed with driverless cars making their way to work, home, and parts beyond, there are glimpses of the future driving alongside us now.
It may be the Honda Civic self-aligned in the fast lane beside you, or the Ford Fusion Energi in your rear view mirror that stopped without driver assistance as traffic ground to a halt, then automatically paced your car as your lane began moving again. Or maybe the driver of the nearby Subaru Crosstrek Hybrid who misjudged how quickly traffic would stop, but escaped incident because of on-board systems that sensed a collision and automatically initiated emergency braking. And what about that Tesla Model S ahead that signaled and changed lanes seemingly on its own as its driver focused on something else?
These are real capabilities of vehicles on the road today. Not all models with autonomous technologies are ‘green’ cars, but assuredly many of them will be since there’s a natural convergence of autonomous driving technology and more efficient cars unfolding before us. This is only gathering momentum as a growing number of vehicles begin to feature systems like these.
Already, cars are increasingly equipped with an array of sensors, radar, and cameras to facilitate driver assistance systems that help deal with mundane chores like backing up safely and parallel parking. These same sensors and systems provide a foundation for even more sophisticated autonomous driving capabilities.
Several automakers are striving mightily to lead the field. Tesla is one of these, not only with the ability for its Model S to autonomously stay in its lane and with traffic flow, but automatically and safely change lanes with the flick of a turn signal when Autosteer is engaged. Cadillac is another with its upcoming Super Cruise.
Volvo is also at the forefront of this race to an autonomous driving future, in part because autonomous cars are considered much safer ‘drivers’ than humans and this aligns well with Volvo’s ambitious goal to eliminate traffic fatalities in its vehicles by 2020. Its XC90 plug-in hybrid already features some of the most advanced autonomous systems out there including Sensus Connect, Intersection Auto Brake, and Pilot Assist. Volvo has also created its Concept 26 autonomous driving interior for the XC90, the first such autonomous-focused concept interior built on a vehicle platform sold today. Volvo is taking a lead role in the world’s first large-scale autonomous driving pilot project that will find 100 self-driving Volvos negotiating everyday driving tasks on 30 miles of public roads around Gothenburg, Sweden.
The specter of life with self-driving cars presents its challenges, not the least of which is consumer distrust of such systems and the concern we will lose the driving enjoyment and sense of freedom that automobiles have brought us since their invention. While we may be in a new era that finds technology impacting most facets of daily life – with this technology increasingly making its way to our cars – the love of driving remains a priority for many.
This is supported by a recent Volvo survey in which a vast majority of those asked said autonomous car technology should respect the love of driving and, in fact, autonomous cars should include a steering wheel even if they are capable of driving themselves. At the same time, most felt that technology in autonomous cars would make their travel time more productive. In other words, we want these worlds to coexist. There’s a lot to read into that …perhaps from the driver’s seat at 65 mph, no?
Volvo’s new Concept Estate not only continues to reveal this automaker’s evolving design language, but also illustrates that Volvo is ready for the ‘big screen.’ Of special interest is this concept wagon’s interior design, which integrates a large tablet-like touchscreen at the center of the dash, a sure sign that connectivity and infotainment loom large in Volvo’s future, as they do with all automakers.
The automaker says its aim is to organize controls and information in an intuitive and user-friendly way, with the portrait touchscreen serving as the control panel for Volvo’s in-car user experience. This strategy does away with all buttons and controls save for a select few, including functions like window heaters, hazard warning, volume, and play/pause. From a design standpoint, this greatly simplifies interior architecture and provides significant design freedom for Volvo designers.
Like most automakers. Volvo is downsizing its engines to make them more fuel efficient. Future Volvo models will be all be powered by a family of Drive-E four-cylinder, 2.0 liter gasoline and diesel engines – no more five and six cylinders. The new engines, developed by Volvo in Sweden, will offer higher performance than today’s six-cylinder variants. They will also be 100 pounds lighter, more compact, and reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 30 percent.
The first new two-liter, four-cylinder Drive-E powertrains will appear in 2015 Volvos. These T5 and T6 gasoline and D4 diesel engines will all use the same architecture that includes an aluminum block, dual overhead cams, 16-valves, and continuously variable valve timing. They can be machined and assembled on the same production lines. All Drive-E models feature start-stop and brake regeneration.
Except in the U.S, the new S60 sedan, V60 wagon, and XC60 crossover will be available with three engines. The T5 and D4 will also be available in the new Volvo V70 wagon, XC70 crossover, and S80 sedan. We will not get the diesel engine here in the U.S. Rather, customers can choose between the new Drive-E engines and some current engines until Volvo transitions solely to Drive-E.
The T6 is both turbocharged and supercharged, using a Roots-style blower supercharger that fills in the bottom end torque to lend the feel of a large, naturally aspirated gasoline engine. The mechanically linked compressor starts functioning immediately at low rpms, while the turbocharger kicks in when airflow builds up. Power is impressive, with the T6 producing 302 horsepower and 295 lb-ft torque. The T5 is turbocharged only and is rated at 240 horsepower with a torque rating of 258 lb-ft.
Friction-reduction in the T5 and T6 includes ball bearings on the camshaft. There is also high-speed continuous variable valve timing and intelligent heat management with a fully variable electric water pump. Other innovations are built in, with the Drive-E diesel featuring i-ART (intelligent-Accuracy Refinement Technology) with pressure feedback from each fuel injector instead of a traditional single pressure sensor in the common rail. Each injector has an intelligent chip on top that monitors injection pressure. Using this information, the self-adapting i-ART system ensures that the ideal amount of fuel is injected during each combustion cycle.
The diesels also feature refinements such as an advanced twin-turbo, reduced friction, and a smart valve on the cooling system for a more rapid heat-up phase after a cold start. Featuring a very high 36,750 psi rail pressure, the D4 produces 181 horsepower and 295 lb-ft torque. Drive-E engines are mated with either a new eight-speed automatic or an enhanced six-speed manual tuned transmission, though U.S, models will probably come only with the automatic. Both FWD and AWD will be available.
While official fuel economy numbers are not yet available, Volvo is estimating 36.8 mpg for a Volvo S60 T6 with the new 8-speed automatic and a 0-62 mph (0-100 kph) time of 5.9 seconds. The Volvo S60 D4 with a manual transmission should rate in the 62 mpg range.
Drive-E engines are ready to be used with an electric motor in hybrid Volvos. Because of the compact size of the four-cylinder engines, the electric motor can be located in front or at the rear. The battery pack would be located in the center of the car.